title: Single-pulse electrical stimulation identifies epileptogenic frontal cortex in the human brain.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To assess the value of single-pulse electrical stimulation (SPES) to identify frontal epileptogenic cortex during presurgical assessment.
  
  
  METHODS
  SPES (1-millisecond pulses, 4 to 8 mA, 0.1 Hz) has been used during chronic recordings in 30 patients with intracranial electrodes in the frontal lobes. As a result of presurgical assessment, 17 patients were considered to have frontal epilepsy and 13 extrafrontal epilepsy.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Two types of responses to SPES were seen: 1) early responses: starting immediately after the stimulus and considered as normal responses; 2) late responses: two types of responses seen in some areas after the initial early response: a) delayed responses: spikes or sharp waves occurring between 100 milliseconds and 1 second after stimulation. Frontal delayed responses were seen in 11 frontal patients and 1 extrafrontal patient, whereas extrafrontal delayed responses were seen in 1 frontal and 10 extrafrontal patients. b) Repetitive responses: two or more consecutive sharp-and-slow-wave complexes, each resembling the initial early response. Repetitive responses were seen only when stimulating the frontal lobes of 10 frontal patients. Among the 17 frontal patients, 13 had late responses exclusively in the epileptogenic frontal lobe, whereas only 3 showed them in both frontal lobes. Frontal late responses were associated with neuropathologic abnormalities, and complete resection of abnormal SPES areas was associated with good postsurgical seizure outcome.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Single-pulse electrical stimulation (SPES) could be an important additional investigation during presurgical assessment to identify frontal epileptogenicity. SPES can be useful in patients who have widespread or multiple epileptogenic areas, normal neuroimaging, or few seizures during telemetry.
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Guy's, King's, and St. Thomas' School of Medicine, King's College Hospital, London, UK.
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Valentín
authors.forename: G
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Alarcón
authors.forename: J J
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: García-Seoane
authors.forename: M E
authors.initials: ME
authors.lastname: Lacruz
authors.forename: S D
authors.initials: SD
authors.lastname: Nayak
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Honavar
authors.forename: R P
authors.initials: RP
authors.lastname: Selway
authors.forename: C D
authors.initials: CD
authors.lastname: Binnie
authors.forename: C E
authors.initials: CE
authors.lastname: Polkey
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D004558:Electric Stimulation / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods; D004567:Electrodes, Implanted / Q000592:standards; D004568:Electrodiagnosis / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods*; D004569:Electroencephalography; D004827:Epilepsy / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000601:surgery; D005071:Evoked Potentials / Q000502:physiology; D005260:Female; D005625:Frontal Lobe / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000601:surgery; D006801:Humans; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D018579:Patient Selection; D011237:Predictive Value of Tests; D011300:Preoperative Care / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods*; D011930:Reaction Time; D013238:Stereotaxic Techniques; D016896:Treatment Outcome