title: Surface analysis of porcelain fused to metal systems.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The effect of four different, commonly performed, metal-ceramic alloy, surface preparation stages, were investigated to observe surface compositional changes.
  
  
  METHODS
  Two metal-ceramic alloys were examined (Pd/Ag alloy and a Ni/Cr alloy). Discs 12 mm diameter and 2mm thick were produced using the lost wax casting process. Prior to casting alloy ingots were examined using X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) to determine bulk composition. The four preparation stages were (1) devesting and Al2O3 blasted; (2) ground smooth and Al2O3 blasted; (3) oxidation firing; (4) firing cycle for opaque porcelain application. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) surface analysis was performed after each surface preparation stage to determine changes in surface composition. SEM with EDS was also used to identify surface composition.
  
  
  RESULTS
  XRF and manufacturers compositional analysis of the alloys showed similar findings for the major elements. XPS analysis showed that at preparation stages 3 and 4 evidence of elemental migration to the surface (In with Pd/Ag alloy and Cr and Mn with Ni/Cr alloy). Alumina was also seen on the alloy surfaces, with SEM/EDS confirming Al2O3 particles embedded in the surface of the alloys.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Surface composition is very different from the batch composition. Surface preparation stage 3 is essential in bringing to the alloy surface elements which could be directly involved in the metal-ceramic bond. Elements and their oxides, in various forms, cover the surface of the alloys. Al2O3 particles can remain embedded in the alloy surface during porcelain application.
authors.affiliation: Department of Adult Dental Care, School of Clinical Dentistry, University of Sheffield, Claremont Crescent, Sheffield S10 2TA, UK. a.johnson@sheffield.ac.uk
authors.forename: Tony
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Johnson
authors.forename: Richard
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: van Noort
authors.forename: Christopher W
authors.initials: CW
authors.lastname: Stokes
mesh_terms: D020906:Air Abrasion, Dental; D000537:Aluminum Oxide / Q000737:chemistry; D002857:Chromium / Q000737:chemistry; D002858:Chromium Alloys / Q000737:chemistry; D001840:Dental Bonding; D003735:Dental Casting Technique; D003776:Dental Porcelain / Q000737:chemistry*; D004577:Electron Probe Microanalysis; D006358:Hot Temperature; D006801:Humans; D007204:Indium / Q000737:chemistry; D008345:Manganese / Q000737:chemistry; D008422:Materials Testing; D016876:Metal Ceramic Alloys / Q000737:chemistry*; D008855:Microscopy, Electron, Scanning; D009532:Nickel / Q000737:chemistry; D010084:Oxidation-Reduction; D010165:Palladium / Q000737:chemistry; D012834:Silver / Q000737:chemistry; D013052:Spectrometry, X-Ray Emission; D013499:Surface Properties
chemical_list: D002858:Chromium Alloys; D016876:Metal Ceramic Alloys; D007204:Indium; D002857:Chromium; D003776:Dental Porcelain; D012834:Silver; D008345:Manganese; D010165:Palladium; D009532:Nickel; D000537:Aluminum Oxide