title: Violence against pregnant women: prevalence and characteristics. A population-based study in Nicaragua.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  This study aims to estimate the prevalence and characteristics of partner abuse during pregnancy as well as to investigate associated social factors in León, Nicaragua.
  
  
  METHODS
  Cross-sectional community-based study.
  
  
  METHODS
  All pregnant women from 50 randomly selected geographical clusters out of 208 in the municipality of León, Nicaragua.
  
  
  METHODS
  A total of 478 pregnant women were included; only one woman refused to participate.
  
  
  METHODS
  The domestic violence questionnaire from the WHO-co-ordinated Multi-Country Study on Women's Health and Life Events was used with each participant being interviewed twice during pregnancy.
  
  
  METHODS
  Prevalence and characteristics of partner violence during pregnancy.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The prevalence of emotional, physical and sexual abuse during pregnancy was 32.4%, 13.4% and 6.7%, respectively. Seventeen percent reported experience of all three forms of violence. Two-thirds of the victims reported repeated abuse. Half of the abused women had experienced punches and kicks directed towards the abdomen and 93% had been injured. Most women had not sought health care in relation to the abuse, but those who did were usually hospitalised. Factors such as women's age below 20 years, poor access to social resources and high levels of emotional distress were independently associated with violence during pregnancy.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Violence against pregnant women in Nicaragua is common and often repeated. Although these women have poor access to social resources and high levels of emotional distress, they are rarely assisted by the health services. Innovative strategies are needed to provide support and counselling.
authors.affiliation: Health and Demography Research Centre, Faculty of Medical Sciences, National Autonomous University of León, Nicaragua.
authors.forename: Eliette
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Valladares
authors.forename: Rodolfo
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Peña
authors.forename: Lars Ake
authors.initials: LA
authors.lastname: Persson
authors.forename: Ulf
authors.initials: U
authors.lastname: Högberg
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008875:Middle Aged; D009527:Nicaragua / Q000453:epidemiology; D011247:Pregnancy; D011248:Pregnancy Complications / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000523:psychology; D015995:Prevalence; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D013179:Spouse Abuse / Q000523:psychology / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D013315:Stress, Psychological; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires