title: Cocaine in surface waters: a new evidence-based tool to monitor community drug abuse.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Cocaine use seems to be increasing in some urban areas worldwide, but it is not straightforward to determine the real extent of this phenomenon. Trends in drug abuse are currently estimated indirectly, mainly by large-scale social, medical, and crime statistics that may be biased or too generic. We thus tested a more direct approach based on 'field' evidence of cocaine use by the general population.
  
  
  METHODS
  Cocaine and its main urinary metabolite (benzoylecgonine, BE) were measured by mass spectrometry in water samples collected from the River Po and urban waste water treatment plants of medium-size Italian cities. Drug concentration, water flow rate, and population at each site were used to estimate local cocaine consumption.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We showed that cocaine and BE are present, and measurable, in surface waters of populated areas. The largest Italian river, the Po, with a five-million people catchment basin, steadily carried the equivalent of about 4 kg cocaine per day. This would imply an average daily use of at least 27 +/- 5 doses (100 mg each) for every 1000 young adults, an estimate that greatly exceeds official national figures. Data from waste water treatment plants serving medium-size Italian cities were consistent with this figure.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This paper shows for the first time that an illicit drug, cocaine, is present in the aquatic environment, namely untreated urban waste water and a major river. We used environmental cocaine levels for estimating collective consumption of the drug, an approach with the unique potential ability to monitor local drug abuse trends in real time, while preserving the anonymity of individuals. The method tested here--in principle extendable to other drugs of abuse--might be further refined to become a standardized, objective tool for monitoring drug abuse.
authors.affiliation: Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Mario Negri Institute for Pharmacological Research, Via Eritrea 62, 20157 Milan, Italy. zuccato@marionegri.it
authors.forename: Ettore
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Zuccato
authors.forename: Chiara
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Chiabrando
authors.forename: Sara
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Castiglioni
authors.forename: Davide
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Calamari
authors.forename: Renzo
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Bagnati
authors.forename: Silvia
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Schiarea
authors.forename: Roberto
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Fanelli
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D003042:Cocaine / Q000031:analogs & derivatives* / Q000032:analysis* / Q000096:biosynthesis / Q000378:metabolism; D019970:Cocaine-Related Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000652:urine; D004323:Drainage, Sanitary; D004784:Environmental Monitoring / Q000379:methods*; D062665:Epidemiological Monitoring; D019317:Evidence-Based Medicine; D006801:Humans; D007558:Italy / Q000453:epidemiology; D013058:Mass Spectrometry; D012111:Residence Characteristics / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D045483:Rivers / Q000737:chemistry*; D014505:Urban Population / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D014554:Urination; D018505:Waste Management
chemical_list: C005618:benzoylecgonine; D003042:Cocaine