title: International collaboration on Russian spacecraft and the case for free flyer biosatellites.
abstract: Animal research has been critical to the initiation and progress of space exploration. Animals were the original explorers of "space" two centuries ago and have played a crucial role by demonstrating that the space environment, with precautions, is compatible with human survival. Studies of mammals have yielded much of our knowledge of space physiology. As spaceflights to other planets are anticipated, animal research will continue to be essential to further reveal space physiology and to enable the longer missions. Much of the physiology data collected from space was obtained from the Cosmos (Bion) spaceflights, a series of Russian (Soviet)-International collaborative flights, over a 22 year period, which employed unmanned, free flyer biosatellites. Begun as a Soviet-only program, after the second flight the Russians invited American and other foreign scientists to participate. This program filled the 10 year hiatus between the last US biosatellite and the first animal experiments on the shuttles. Of the 11 flights in the Cosmos program nine of them were international; the flights continued over the years regardless of political differences between the Soviet Union and the Western world. The science evolved from sharing tissues to joint international planning and development, and from rat postmortem tissue analysis to in vivo measurements of a host of monkey physiological parameters during flight. Many types of biological specimens were carried on the modified Vostok spacecraft, but only the mammalian studies are discussed herein. The types of studies done encompass the full range of physiology and have begun to answer "critical" questions of space physiology posed by various ad hoc committees. The studies have not only yielded a prodigious and significant body of data, they have also introduced some new perspectives in physiology. A number of the physiological insights gained are relevant to physiology on Earth. The Cosmos flights also added significantly to flight-related technology, some of which also has application on our planet. In summary, the Cosmos biosatellite flights were extremely productive and of low cost. The Bion vehicles are versatile in that they can be placed into a variety of orbits and altitudes, and can carry radiation sources or other hazardous material which cannot be carried on manned vehicles. With recent advances in sensor, robotic, and data processing technology, future free flyers will be even more productive, and will largely preclude the need to fly animal experiments on manned vehicles. Currently, mammalian researchers do not have access to space for an unknown time, seriously impeding the advancement and understanding of space physiology during long duration missions. Initiation of a new, international program of free flyer biosatellites is critical to our further understanding of space physiology, and essential to continued human exploration of space.
authors.affiliation: Life Sciences Division, NASA - Ames Research Center, Moffett Field 94035, USA.
authors.forename: Richard E
authors.initials: RE
authors.lastname: Grindeland
authors.forename: Eugene A
authors.initials: EA
authors.lastname: Ilyin
authors.forename: Daniel C
authors.initials: DC
authors.lastname: Holley
authors.forename: Michael G
authors.initials: MG
authors.lastname: Skidmore
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001823:Body Composition; D001921:Brain / Q000502:physiology; D002940:Circadian Rhythm; D003299:Cooperative Behavior; D004702:Endocrine Glands / Q000502:physiology; D004912:Erythrocytes / Q000502:physiology; D023421:Models, Animal; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000502:physiology; D009469:Neuromuscular Junction / Q000502:physiology; D012098:Reproduction; D012426:Russia; D013026:Space Flight; D018531:Spacecraft