title: Embryology of the spine and associated congenital abnormalities.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The spine is a complex and vital structure. Its function includes not only structural support of the body as a whole, but it also serves as a conduit for safe passage of the neural elements while allowing proper interaction with the brain. Anatomically, a variety of tissue types are represented in the spine. Embryologically, a detailed cascade of events must occur to result in the proper formation of both the musculoskeletal and neural elements of the spine. Alterations in these embryologic steps can result in one or more congenital abnormalities of the spine. Other body systems forming at the same time embryologically can be affected as well, resulting in associated defects in the cardiopulmonary system and the gastrointestinal and genitourinary tracts.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  This article is to serve as a review of the basic embryonic development of the spine. We will discuss the common congenital anomalies of the spine, including their clinical presentation, as examples of errors of this basic embryologic process.
  
  
  METHODS
  Review of the current literature on the embryology of the spine and associated congenital abnormalities.
  
  
  METHODS
  A literature search was performed on the embryology of the spine and associated congenital abnormalities.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Development of the spine is a complex event involving genes, signaling pathways and numerous metabolic processes. Various abnormalities are associated with errors in this process.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Physicians treating patients with congenital spinal deformities should have an understanding of normal embryologic development as well as common associated abnormalities.
authors.affiliation: New York University, Hospital for Joint Diseases, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, 14th Floor, 301 East 17th Street, New York, NY 10003, USA. kaplak02@med.nyu.edu
authors.forename: Kevin M
authors.initials: KM
authors.lastname: Kaplan
authors.forename: Jeffrey M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Spivak
authors.forename: John A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Bendo
mesh_terms: D006801:Humans; D007714:Klippel-Feil Syndrome / Q000196:embryology; D009436:Neural Tube Defects / Q000196:embryology; D013121:Spinal Curvatures / Q000151:congenital / Q000196:embryology; D016135:Spinal Dysraphism / Q000196:embryology; D013131:Spine / Q000002:abnormalities* / Q000196:embryology*; D013168:Spondylolisthesis / Q000151:congenital / Q000196:embryology