title: Risk assessment of adenoviruses detected in treated drinking water and recreational water.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Human adenoviruses (HAds) have previously been detected in sewage and polluted river and dam water, as well as treated drinking water. The 51 serotypes of HAds cause a wide range of infections with clinical manifestations associated with the gastrointestinal, respiratory and urinary tracts, and the eyes. Water may play a meaningful role in the transmission of many of these HAd serotypes, specifically the enteric HAds which are transmitted via the faecal-oral route. The presence of these viruses in water used for drinking and recreational purposes is considered to constitute a potential health risk. In this study, the risk of infection by the group of HAds previously detected over a period of 1 year in selected drinking water supplies, as well as river and dam water used for recreational purposes, was assessed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Adenoviruses were previously detected in nine of 204 (4.41%) samples of two drinking water supplies (A and B) treated and disinfected according to international specifications, in four of 51 (7.8%) samples of river water and nine of 51 (17.7%) samples of dam water. Application of these previously published results in an exponential risk assessment model indicated an annual risk of infection of 1.01 x 10(-1) and 1.7 x 10(-1) for drinking water supplies A and B, respectively, assuming a daily consumption of 2 l day(-1). The daily risk of infection constituted by HAds in the river water was calculated as 1.71 x 10(-4), and in the dam water as 3.12 x 10(-5), assuming a consumption of 30 ml of water per day.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The risk of infection exceeded the tolerable risk of one infection per 10 000 consumers per year proposed for drinking water. However, the results for river and dam water used for recreational purposes were within the tolerable risk of one infection per 1000 bathers per day proposed for environmental waters used for recreational purposes.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The study showed that the risk of HAd infection calculated for the drinking water supplies and the recreational water may overestimate the actual risk of infection, as conservative values were assumed for some of the variables. For a more accurate assessment of the potential risk of infection research should at least include a thorough investigation of the water consumption of individuals in South Africa, and the efficiency of recovery of the glass wool adsorption-elution method.
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Virology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Heerden
authors.forename: M M
authors.initials: MM
authors.lastname: Ehlers
authors.forename: J C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Vivier
authors.forename: W O K
authors.initials: WO
authors.lastname: Grabow
mesh_terms: D000256:Adenoviridae / Q000302:isolation & purification; D000257:Adenoviridae Infections / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000401:mortality / Q000635:transmission*; D004326:Drinking; D004781:Environmental Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects; D006801:Humans; D015233:Models, Statistical; D009017:Morbidity; D011998:Recreation; D018570:Risk Assessment / Q000379:methods; D045483:Rivers / Q000821:virology; D012680:Sensitivity and Specificity; D014871:Water Microbiology