title: Comparison of beta-lactam regimens for the treatment of gram-negative pulmonary infections in the intensive care unit based on pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  This study utilized pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics to compare beta-lactam regimens for the empirical and definitive treatment of gram-negative pulmonary infections in the ICU.
  
  
  METHODS
  Susceptibility data were extracted from the 2002 Intensive Care Unit Surveillance System (ISS) and pharmacokinetic parameters were obtained from published human studies. Monte Carlo simulation was used to model the free percent time above the MIC (free %T > MIC) for 18 beta-lactam regimens against all gram-negative isolates, Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii. The cumulative fraction of response (CFR) was determined for bacteriostatic and bactericidal targets (free %T > MIC): penicillins (> or = 30/50%), cephalosporins/monobactams (> or = 40/70%) and carbapenems (> or = 20/40%).
  
  
  RESULTS
  The 2002 ISS database contained MICs for 2408 gram-negative isolates including 1430 Enterobacteriaceae, 799 P. aeruginosa, and 179 A. baumannii. Imipenem had the highest percentage susceptible for all gram-negatives, Enterobacteriaceae and A. baumannii, while piperacillin/tazobactam had the highest percentage susceptible for P. aeruginosa. For empirical therapy, imipenem 0.5 g every 6 h, cefepime 2 g every 8 h and ceftazidime 2 g every 8 h demonstrated the highest CFR. For definitive therapy, imipenem 0.5 g every 6 h, ertapenem 1 g daily and cefepime 2 g every 8 h, cefepime 1 g every 8 h and cefepime 1 g every 12 h had the highest bactericidal CFR against Enterobacteriaceae; ceftazidime 2 g every 8 h, cefepime 2 g every 8 h, piperacillin/tazobactam 3.375 g every 4 h, ceftazidime 1 g every 8 h and aztreonam 1 g every 8 h against P. aeruginosa; and imipenem 0.5 g every 6 h, ticarcillin/clavulanate 3.1 g every 4 h, ceftazidime 2 g every 8 h, cefepime 2 g every 8 h and ticarcillin/clavulanate 3.1 g every 6 h against A. baumannii.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Based on pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics, imipenem 0.5 g every 6 h, cefepime 2 g every 8 h and ceftazidime 2 g every 8 h should be the preferred beta-lactam regimens for the empirical treatment of gram-negative pulmonary infections in the ICU. The order of preference varied against Enterobacteriaceae, P. aeruginosa and A. baumannii.
authors.affiliation: College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station Stop A1900, Austin, TX 78712, USA. BurgessD@uthscsa.edu
authors.forename: David S
authors.initials: DS
authors.lastname: Burgess
authors.forename: Christopher R
authors.initials: CR
authors.lastname: Frei
mesh_terms: D000151:Acinetobacter Infections / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000382:microbiology; D040981:Acinetobacter baumannii / Q000187:drug effects; D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000493:pharmacokinetics / Q000494:pharmacology / Q000627:therapeutic use; D004755:Enterobacteriaceae / Q000187:drug effects; D004756:Enterobacteriaceae Infections / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000382:microbiology; D006090:Gram-Negative Bacteria / Q000187:drug effects*; D016905:Gram-Negative Bacterial Infections / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000382:microbiology; D006801:Humans; D007362:Intensive Care Units; D008826:Microbial Sensitivity Tests; D018410:Pneumonia, Bacterial / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000382:microbiology*; D011552:Pseudomonas Infections / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000382:microbiology; D011550:Pseudomonas aeruginosa / Q000187:drug effects; D047090:beta-Lactams / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000493:pharmacokinetics* / Q000494:pharmacology / Q000627:therapeutic use
chemical_list: D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents; D047090:beta-Lactams