title: New developments in flavivirus vaccines with special attention to yellow fever.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Here we review recent epidemiological trends in flavivirus diseases, findings related to existing vaccines, and new directions in flavivirus vaccine research. We emphasize the need for stepped-up efforts to stop further spread and intensification of these infections worldwide.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Although the incidence and geographic distribution of flavivirus diseases have increased in recent years, human vaccines are available only for yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, tick-borne encephalitis and Kyasanur forest disease. Factors contributing to resurgence include insufficient supplies of available vaccines, incomplete vaccination coverage and relaxation in vector control. Research has been underway for 60 years to develop effective vaccines against dengue, and recent progress is encouraging. The development of vaccines against West Nile, virus recently introduced to North America, has been initiated. In addition, there is considerable interest in improving existing vaccines with respect to increasing safety (e.g. eliminating the newly recognized syndrome of yellow fever vaccine-associated viscerotropic adverse disease), and to reducing the cost and number of doses required for effective immunization.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Traditional approaches to flavivirus vaccines are still employed, while recent advancements in biotechnology produced new approaches to vaccine design, such as recombinant live virus, subunit and DNA vaccines. Live chimeric vaccines against dengue, Japanese encephalitis and West Nile based on yellow fever 17D virus (ChimeriVax) are in phase I/II trials, with encouraging results. Other chimeric dengue, tick-borne encephalitis and West Nile virus candidates were developed based on attenuated dengue backbones. To further reduce the impact of flavivirus diseases, vaccination policies and vector control programs in affected countries require revision.
authors.affiliation: Acambis Inc., 38 Sidney Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
authors.forename: Konstantin V
authors.initials: KV
authors.lastname: Pugachev
authors.forename: Farshad
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Guirakhoo
authors.forename: Thomas P
authors.initials: TP
authors.lastname: Monath
mesh_terms: D005416:Flavivirus / Q000276:immunology*; D018177:Flavivirus Infections / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000517:prevention & control; D006801:Humans; D014765:Viral Vaccines / Q000276:immunology / Q000627:therapeutic use; D015004:Yellow Fever / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000517:prevention & control; D022341:Yellow Fever Vaccine / Q000276:immunology / Q000627:therapeutic use
chemical_list: D014765:Viral Vaccines; D022341:Yellow Fever Vaccine