Control of urinary bladder function with devices: successes and failures.
The management of urinary tract dysfunction is crucial for the health and well-being of people with spinal cord injury. Devices, specifically catheters, play an important role in the daily regime of bladder management for most people with spinal cord injury. However, the high incidence of complications associated with the use of catheters, and the fact that the spinal segments involved in lower urinary tract control remain intact in most cord-injured people, continue to motivate research into devices that could harness the nervous system to provide greater control over lower urinary tract function. Mechanical devices discussed in this review include catheters, artificial urethral sphincters, urethral stents and intraurethral pumps. Additionally, many attempts to restore control of the lower urinary tract with electrical stimulation have been made. Stimulation sites have included: inside the bladder, bladder wall, thigh, pelvic floor, dorsal penile nerve, pelvic nerve, tibial nerve, sacral roots, sacral nerves and spinal cord. Catheters and sacral root stimulators are two techniques whose efficacy is well established. Some approaches have proven less successful and others are still in the development stage. Modifications to sacral root stimulation including posterior root stimulation, anodal blockade and high-frequency blockade as well as new techniques including intraspinal microstimulation, urethral afferent stimulation and injectable microstimulators are also discussed. No single device has yet restored the control and function of the lower urinary tract to the pre-injury state, but new techniques are bringing this possibility closer to reality.
Gaunt
Robert A
RA
Department of Biomedical Engineering and Center for Neuroscience, University of Alberta, 507 HMRC, Edmonton, AB T6G 2S2, Canada.
Prochazka
Arthur
A
D002404:Catheterization / Q000009:adverse effects; D004599:Electric Stimulation Therapy / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods; D006801:Humans; D008839:Microelectrodes; D020127:Recovery of Function; D012447:Sacrum / Q000294:innervation; D013116:Spinal Cord / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000378:metabolism; D013119:Spinal Cord Injuries / Q000150:complications* / Q000473:pathology / Q000503:physiopathology; D015607:Stents; D016896:Treatment Outcome; D001743:Urinary Bladder / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000502:physiology; D016741:Urinary Sphincter, Artificial; D014554:Urination / Q000502:physiology; D014555:Urination Disorders / Q000209:etiology* / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000628:therapy*