title: Quantifying athlete self-talk.
abstract: Two studies were conducted. The aims of Study 1 were (a) to generate quantitative data on the content of athletes' self-talk and (b) to examine differences in the use of self-talk in general as well as the functions of self-talk in practice and competition settings. Differences in self-talk between the sexes, sport types and skill levels were also assessed. Athletes (n = 295, mean age = 21.9 years) from a variety of sports and competitive levels completed the Self-Talk Use Questionnaire (STUQ), which was developed specifically for the study. In Study 1, single-factor between-group multivariate analyses of variance revealed significant differences across sex and sport type for the content of self-talk. Mixed-model multivariate analyses of variance revealed overall greater use of self-talk, as well as increased use of the functions of self-talk, in competition compared with practice. Moreover, individual sport athletes reported greater use of self-talk, as well as the functions of self-talk, than their team sport counterparts. In Study 2, recreational volleyball players (n = 164, mean age = 21.5 years) completed a situationally modified STUQ. The results were very similar to those of Study 1. That the content of athlete self-talk was generally positive, covert and abbreviated lends support to the application of Vygotsky's (1986) verbal self-regulation theory to the study of self-talk in sport. Researchers are encouraged to examine the effectiveness of self-talk in future studies.
authors.affiliation: School of Sport, Health and Exercise Sciences, University of Wales, George Building, Normal Site, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2PZ, UK. j.t.hardy@bangor.ac.uk
authors.forename: James
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Hardy
authors.forename: Craig R
authors.initials: CR
authors.lastname: Hall
authors.forename: Lew
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Hardy
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000704:Analysis of Variance; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007389:Internal-External Control; D008297:Male; D010565:Persuasive Communication; D011597:Psychomotor Performance; D036301:Qualitative Research; D020377:Self Efficacy; D012737:Sex Factors; D013177:Sports / Q000523:psychology* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D014705:Verbal Behavior