title: Detection and risk assessment of adenoviruses in swimming pool water.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The role of swimming pool water as a source of human adenovirus (HAd) infection has previously been demonstrated. In this study, the risk of infection of HAds detected in a survey of swimming pool water from two indoor and one outdoor swimming pools over a period of 1 year was assessed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The HAds were concentrated from 1 l grab samples of swimming pool water using a silicon dioxide-based method. The extracted HAd DNA was amplified by means of a nested PCR method. Adenoviruses were detected in four of 26 samples (15.4%) from the indoor swimming pool A, eight of 38 samples (21.1%) from the indoor swimming pool B and three of 28 samples (10.7%) from the outdoor swimming pool C. Application of these results in an exponential risk assessment model indicated a daily risk of infection of 2.61 x 10(-3) for swimming pool A, 3.69 x 10(-3) for swimming pool B and 1.92 x 10(-3) for swimming pool C assuming a daily consumption of 30 ml of swimming pool water.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  No acceptable (tolerable) risk of infection has yet been recommended for swimming pool water. However, the quality of swimming pool water is generally expected to be similar to that of drinking water. One infection per 10 000 consumers per year has been recommended for drinking water. The risk of HAd infections calculated for the swimming pool water under investigation exceeded this acceptable risk.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The finding that swimming pool water which conforms to generally accepted specifications for treatment, disinfection and indicator organisms constituted a risk of HAd infection, has implications for the swimming pool industry. The formulation of acceptable (tolerable) risks of infection for swimming pool water may be essential. Specifications will, therefore, have to be formulated to ensure that swimming pool water conforms to the acceptable risk of infection.
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Virology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa. juanita.vanheerden@up.ac.za
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: van Heerden
authors.forename: M M
authors.initials: MM
authors.lastname: Ehlers
authors.forename: W O K
authors.initials: WO
authors.lastname: Grabow
mesh_terms: D000256:Adenoviridae / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D000257:Adenoviridae Infections / Q000635:transmission*; D002713:Chlorine / Q000032:analysis; D004781:Environmental Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects; D006801:Humans; D016133:Polymerase Chain Reaction / Q000379:methods; D018570:Risk Assessment / Q000379:methods; D012822:Silicon Dioxide; D013551:Swimming Pools; D014773:Virology / Q000379:methods; D014867:Water / Q000032:analysis; D014871:Water Microbiology
chemical_list: D014867:Water; D002713:Chlorine; D012822:Silicon Dioxide