Neuronal and astrocytic shuttle mechanisms for cytosolic-mitochondrial transfer of reducing equivalents: current evidence and pharmacological tools.
The malate-aspartate shuttle and the glycerol phosphate shuttle act to transfer reducing equivalents from NADH in the cytosol to the mitochondria since the inner mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to NADH and NAD+. This transfer of reducing equivalents is essential for maintaining a favorable NAD+/NADH ratio required for the oxidative metabolism of glucose and synthesis of neurotransmitters in brain. There is evidence that both the malate-aspartate shuttle and glycerol phosphate shuttle function in brain; however, there is controversy about the relative importance and cellular localization of these shuttles. The malate-aspartate shuttle is considered the most important shuttle in brain. It is particularly important in neurons and may be extremely low, or even non-existent in brain astrocytes. Several studies provide evidence of glycerol phosphate shuttle activity in brain cells; however, the activity of this shuttle in brain has been questioned. A number of pharmacological tools, including aminooxyacetic acid, beta-methyleneaspartate, phenylsuccinate, and 3-nitropropionic acid, have been used to inhibit the four enzymes and two carrier proteins that participate in the malate-aspartate shuttle. Although no drugs completely inhibit the glycerol phosphate shuttle, evidence for the existence of this shuttle is provided by studies using drugs to inhibit the malate-aspartate shuttle. This report evaluates the evidence for each shuttle in brain cells and the drugs that can be used as pharmacological tools to study these shuttles.
McKenna
Mary C
MC
Department of Pediatrics, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 655 West Baltimore Street, Room 10-031, Baltimore, MD 21201-1509, USA.
Waagepetersen
Helle S
HS
Schousboe
Arne
A
Sonnewald
Ursula
U
D000818:Animals; D001224:Aspartic Acid / Q000378:metabolism; D001253:Astrocytes / Q000378:metabolism*; D001692:Biological Transport / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D003600:Cytosol / Q000378:metabolism*; D005994:Glycerophosphates / Q000378:metabolism; D008293:Malates / Q000378:metabolism; D008928:Mitochondria / Q000378:metabolism*; D008954:Models, Biological; D009243:NAD / Q000378:metabolism; D009474:Neurons / Q000378:metabolism*; D010084:Oxidation-Reduction
D005994:Glycerophosphates; D008293:Malates; D009243:NAD; D001224:Aspartic Acid; C029620:alpha-glycerophosphoric acid