title: Cost, affordability and cost-effectiveness of strategies to control tuberculosis in countries with high HIV prevalence.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The HIV epidemic has caused a dramatic increase in tuberculosis (TB) in East and southern Africa. Several strategies have the potential to reduce the burden of TB in high HIV prevalence settings, and cost and cost-effectiveness analyses can help to prioritize them when budget constraints exist. However, published cost and cost-effectiveness studies are limited.
  
  
  METHODS
  Our objective was to compare the cost, affordability and cost-effectiveness of seven strategies for reducing the burden of TB in countries with high HIV prevalence. A compartmental difference equation model of TB and HIV and recent cost data were used to assess the costs (year 2003 USD prices) and effects (TB cases averted, deaths averted, DALYs gained) of these strategies in Kenya during the period 2004-2023.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The three lowest cost and most cost-effective strategies were improving TB cure rates, improving TB case detection rates, and improving both together. The incremental cost of combined improvements to case detection and cure was below USD 15 million per year (7.5% of year 2000 government health expenditure); the mean cost per DALY gained of these three strategies ranged from USD 18 to USD 34. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) had the highest incremental costs, which by 2007 could be as large as total government health expenditures in year 2000. ART could also gain more DALYs than the other strategies, at a cost per DALY gained of around USD 260 to USD 530. Both the costs and effects of treatment for latent tuberculosis infection (TLTI) for HIV+ individuals were low; the cost per DALY gained ranged from about USD 85 to USD 370. Averting one HIV infection for less than USD 250 would be as cost-effective as improving TB case detection and cure rates to WHO target levels.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  To reduce the burden of TB in high HIV prevalence settings, the immediate goal should be to increase TB case detection rates and, to the extent possible, improve TB cure rates, preferably in combination. Realising the full potential of ART will require substantial new funding and strengthening of health system capacity so that increased funding can be used effectively.
authors.affiliation: School of Mathematics, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK. christine.currie@soton.ac.uk
authors.forename: Christine S M
authors.initials: CS
authors.lastname: Currie
authors.forename: Katherine
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Floyd
authors.forename: Brian G
authors.initials: BG
authors.lastname: Williams
authors.forename: Christopher
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Dye
mesh_terms: D017088:AIDS-Related Opportunistic Infections / Q000191:economics* / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000517:prevention & control*; D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D023241:Antiretroviral Therapy, Highly Active / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D000995:Antitubercular Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use; D017281:Cost of Illness; D003362:Cost-Benefit Analysis; D023801:Directly Observed Therapy; D005260:Female; D017048:Health Care Costs / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D006297:Health Services Accessibility; D006801:Humans; D007630:Kenya / Q000453:epidemiology; D008875:Middle Aged; D017059:Models, Econometric; D015995:Prevalence; D019057:Quality-Adjusted Life Years; D014376:Tuberculosis / Q000191:economics* / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000517:prevention & control*
chemical_list: D000995:Antitubercular Agents