title: Overcoming inherent problems of preference-based techniques for measuring health benefits: an empirical study in the context of kidney transplantation.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Economic valuations of health care programs often require using patients as subjects, implying that research methodology should conform to the surrounding social, cultural and ethical context. The significance of patients' opinions in health care decisions has been well defined but in Greece, and perhaps elsewhere, clinicians remain skeptical. The purpose of this study was to investigate, for the first time in Greece, the feasibility of measuring preference-based health-state utilities and willingness to pay and to determine the context-based adaptations required to overcome inherent elicitation problems.
  
  
  METHODS
  A survey including a time trade-off (TTO), a standard gamble (SG), and two willingness-to-pay (WTP) questions was self-administered to a homogenous group of 606 end stage renal disease patients in 24 dialysis facilities throughout Greece and the overall response rate was 78.5%. Typical elicitation methods were adapted to overcome methodological problems such as subjective life expectancy and question framing. Spearman's correlation coefficients were calculated between utilities and WTP and parametric tests (independent samples t-test and ANOVA) examined score differences as a result of demographic and clinical factors.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Mean health-state utilities were 72.56 (TTO) and 91.06 (SG) and these were statistically significantly different (P < 0.0005). Significant correlations, in the expected directions, were observed between TTO - SG, TTO - WTP and SG - WTP (P < 0.01). High ceiling effects were observed in the TTO and SG methods indicating patients' adversity to risk and unwillingness to trade-off life years. Higher WTP was observed from younger patients (P < 0.0005), males (P < 0.05), higher education levels (P < 0.01), single (P < 0.0005) and employed (P < 0.005).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This study demonstrated, to a fair extent, that adapting research methods to context-based particularities does not necessarily compromise results and should be considered in situations where standard methods cannot be applied. On the other hand, it is emphasized that the results from this study are preliminary and should be interpreted cautiously until further research demonstrates the practicality, reliability and validity of alternative measurement approaches.
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Social Sciences, Hellenic Open University, Riga Fereou 169 & Tsamadou 262 22 Patra, Greece. nkontodi@otenet.gr
authors.forename: Nick
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Kontodimopoulos
authors.forename: Dimitris
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Niakas
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D001294:Attitude to Health; D003710:Demography; D036262:Empirical Research; D005260:Female; D005382:Financing, Personal; D006115:Greece; D006801:Humans; D007676:Kidney Failure, Chronic / Q000601:surgery*; D016030:Kidney Transplantation / Q000191:economics*; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D019057:Quality-Adjusted Life Years; D012044:Regression Analysis; D018570:Risk Assessment; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D026712:Value of Life