title: Get the LEAD out: noninvasive assessment for lower extremity arterial disease using ankle brachial index and toe brachial index measurements.
abstract: Lower extremity arterial disease affects approximately one third of individuals 66 years of age and older and has a high risk for nonhealing wounds, infection, and limb loss. Much wound care is given by or under the direction of nurses. Therefore, the assessment and management of these patients presents many opportunities and challenges. Assessment is the cornerstone of effective care, but traditional methods of lower extremity arterial assessment, such as pulse palpation and pain history, are insufficient to determine the presence and extent of ischemia. Recently published national guidelines for assessment and management of patients with lower extremity wounds have recommended using noninvasive tests such as the ankle brachial index and toe brachial index to rule out lower extremity arterial disease, which complicates wound healing. However, the ankle brachial index can be falsely elevated in patients with diabetes and renal failure because of calcification of the arteries, which causes them to be incompressible. In these situations, it has been advised to obtain a toe pressure or toe brachial index because digital arteries are usually less affected by calcification. There is a paucity of data about the knowledge of principles and performance of the ankle brachial index/toe brachial index by nurses, particularly in the United States, using pocket-sized portable Doppler equipment. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to provide an overview and synthesis of relevant studies and published expert opinion regarding noninvasive arterial assessment using ankle brachial and toe brachial indexes as a basis for developing protocols for performing the tests and identifying gaps in research where further investigation is needed.
authors.affiliation: Wound Care Education Program, College of Nursing, Medical University of South Carolina, South Carolina, USA. pbonham1@comcast.net
authors.forename: Phyllis A
authors.initials: PA
authors.lastname: Bonham
mesh_terms: D000842:Ankle / Q000098:blood supply*; D001157:Arterial Occlusive Diseases / Q000150:complications / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000453:epidemiology; D015982:Bias; D001795:Blood Pressure Determination / Q000451:nursing; D001916:Brachial Artery / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging*; D006801:Humans; D007871:Leg Ulcer / Q000209:etiology; D035002:Lower Extremity / Q000098:blood supply; D008433:Mathematics; D008487:Medical History Taking; D024802:Nurse's Role; D009730:Nursing Assessment / Q000379:methods* / Q000592:standards; D015403:Nursing Evaluation Research; D010173:Palpation; D019095:Point-of-Care Systems; D017410:Practice Guidelines as Topic; D015995:Prevalence; D011674:Pulse; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012107:Research Design; D012680:Sensitivity and Specificity; D012720:Severity of Illness Index; D014034:Toes / Q000098:blood supply*; D014463:Ultrasonography; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology