title: Hypospadias: pathophysiology and etiologic theories.
abstract: Hypospadias is a congenital defect of the male urethra and phallus. Most boys with hypospadias have no other signs of under-masculinization or congenital malformations. The incidence appears to be increasing in the developed world. Evidence suggests that the etiology of hypospadias is multifactorial and that environmental conditions may have a role in the increasing incidence. The authors review normal male urethral development, epidemiology and the role of maternal-fetal hormone interactions, androgen synthesis, 5alpha-reductase, androgen receptor, environmental factors and assisted reproductive technology.
authors.affiliation: Department of Urology, UC Davis Children's Hospital and School of Medicine, Sacramento, USA. eric.kurzrock@ucdmc.ucdavis.edu
authors.forename: Eric A
authors.initials: EA
authors.lastname: Kurzrock
authors.forename: Edward
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Karpman
mesh_terms: D000728:Androgens / Q000378:metabolism; D004785:Environmental Pollutants / Q000009:adverse effects*; D014943:Global Health; D006801:Humans; D007021:Hypospadias / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology / Q000378:metabolism; D015994:Incidence; D008297:Male; D013739:Testosterone / Q000378:metabolism
chemical_list: D000728:Androgens; D004785:Environmental Pollutants; D013739:Testosterone