Relationship between high consumption of marine fatty acids in early pregnancy and hypertensive disorders in pregnancy.
OBJECTIVE
To investigate whether there is a relationship between maternal intake of cod-liver oil in early and late pregnancy and hypertensive disorders in pregnancy.


METHODS
An observational prospective study.


METHODS
Free-living conditions in a community with traditional fish and cod-liver oil consumption.


METHODS
Four hundred and eighty-eight low-risk pregnant Icelandic women.


METHODS
Maternal use of cod-liver oil, foods and other supplements was estimated with a semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire covering food intake together with lifestyle factors for the previous 3 months. Questionnaires were filled out twice, between 11 and 15 weeks of gestation and between 34 and 37 weeks of gestation. Supplements related to hypertensive disorders in pregnancy, i.e. gestational hypertension and pre-eclampsia, were presented, with logistic regression controlling for potential confounding.


METHODS
Gestational hypertension, pre-eclampsia, cod-liver oil and multivitamins.


RESULTS
The odds ratio for developing hypertensive disorders in pregnancy for women consuming liquid cod-liver oil was 4.7 (95% CI 1.8-12.6, P= 0.002), after adjusting for confounding factors. By dividing the amount of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LCPUFA) into centiles, the odds ratio for hypertensive disorders across groups for n-3 LCPUFA suggested a u-shaped curve (P = 0.008). Similar results were found for gestational hypertension alone. Further, the use of multivitamin supplements without vitamins A and D in late pregnancy doubled the odds of hypertensive disorders (OR 2.4, 95% CI 1.0-5.4, P= 0.044).


CONCLUSIONS
Consumption of high doses of n-3 LCPUFA in early pregnancy, or other nutrients found in liquid cod-liver oil, may increase the risk of developing hypertensive disorders in pregnancy.
Olafsdottir
A S
AS
Unit for Nutrition Research, Landspitali-University Hospital & Department of Food Science, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland.
Skuladottir
G V
GV
Thorsdottir
I
I
Hauksson
A
A
Thorgeirsdottir
H
H
Steingrimsdottir
L
L
D000328:Adult; D003060:Cod Liver Oil / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000009:adverse effects*; D015331:Cohort Studies; D004034:Diet Surveys; D019587:Dietary Supplements / Q000009:adverse effects; D015525:Fatty Acids, Omega-3 / Q000008:administration & dosage; D005231:Fatty Acids, Unsaturated / Q000008:administration & dosage; D005260:Female; D005396:Fish Products; D006801:Humans; D046110:Hypertension, Pregnancy-Induced / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology*; D007055:Iceland / Q000453:epidemiology; D008019:Life Style; D016017:Odds Ratio; D011225:Pre-Eclampsia / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology; D011247:Pregnancy; D011261:Pregnancy Trimester, First; D014815:Vitamins / Q000008:administration & dosage
D015525:Fatty Acids, Omega-3; D005231:Fatty Acids, Unsaturated; D014815:Vitamins; D003060:Cod Liver Oil