title: Worldwide human papillomavirus etiology of cervical adenocarcinoma and its cofactors: implications for screening and prevention.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Most cancers of the uterine cervix are squamous cell carcinomas. Although the incidence of such carcinomas of the uterine cervix has declined over time, that of cervical adenocarcinoma has risen in recent years. The extent to which human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and cofactors may explain this differential trend is unclear.
  
  
  METHODS
  We pooled data from eight case-control studies of cervical cancer that were conducted on three continents. A total of 167 case patients with invasive cervical adenocarcinoma (112 with adenocarcinoma and 55 with adenosquamous carcinoma) and 1881 hospital-based control subjects were included. HPV DNA was analyzed in cervical specimens with the GP5+/6+ general primer system followed by type-specific hybridization for 33 HPV genotypes. Blood samples were analyzed for chlamydial and herpes simplex virus 2 (HSV-2) serology. Multivariable unconditional logistic regression modeling was used to calculate odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). All tests of statistical significance were two-sided.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The adjusted overall odds ratio for cervical adenocarcinoma in HPV-positive women compared with HPV-negative women was 81.3 (95% CI = 42.0 to 157.1). HPV 16 and HPV 18 were the two most commonly detected HPV types in case patients and control subjects. These two types were present in 82% of the patients. Cofactors that showed clear statistically significant positive associations with cervical adenocarcinoma overall and among HPV-positive women included never schooling, poor hygiene, sexual behavior-related variables, long-term use of hormonal contraception, high parity, and HSV-2 seropositivity. Parity had a weaker association with adenocarcinoma and only among HPV-positive women. Use of an intrauterine device (IUD) had a statistically significant inverse association with risk of adenocarcinoma (for ever use of an IUD compared with never use, OR = .41 [95% CI = 0.18 to 0.93]). Smoking and chlamydial seropositivity were not associated with disease.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  HPV appears to be the key risk factor for cervical adenocarcinoma. HPV testing in primary screening using current mixtures of HPV types and HPV vaccination against main HPV types should reduce the incidence of this cancer worldwide.
authors.affiliation: Institut d'Investigació Biomèdica de Bellvitge, Cancer Epidemiology and Registration Unit, Institut Català d'Oncologia. L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain. xcastellsague@ico.scs.es
authors.forename: Xavier
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Castellsagué
authors.forename: Mireia
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Díaz
authors.forename: Silvia
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: de Sanjosé
authors.forename: Nubia
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Muñoz
authors.forename: Rolando
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Herrero
authors.forename: Silvia
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Franceschi
authors.forename: Rosanna W
authors.initials: RW
authors.lastname: Peeling
authors.forename: Rhoda
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Ashley
authors.forename: Jennifer S
authors.initials: JS
authors.lastname: Smith
authors.forename: Peter J F
authors.initials: PJ
authors.lastname: Snijders
authors.forename: Chris J L M
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Meijer
authors.forename: F Xavier
authors.initials: FX
authors.lastname: Bosch
mesh_terms: D000230:Adenocarcinoma / Q000209:etiology / Q000517:prevention & control* / Q000821:virology*; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D002294:Carcinoma, Squamous Cell / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000821:virology; D016022:Case-Control Studies; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D016015:Logistic Models; D008403:Mass Screening; D008875:Middle Aged; D015337:Multicenter Studies as Topic; D015999:Multivariate Analysis; D016017:Odds Ratio; D027383:Papillomaviridae / Q000145:classification; D030361:Papillomavirus Infections / Q000150:complications* / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000821:virology; D015995:Prevalence; D011322:Primary Prevention; D012307:Risk Factors; D002583:Uterine Cervical Neoplasms / Q000209:etiology / Q000517:prevention & control* / Q000821:virology*; D014765:Viral Vaccines / Q000627:therapeutic use*
chemical_list: D014765:Viral Vaccines