title: Genetic and other contributions to alcohol intake in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta).
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The etiology of alcoholism and alcohol abuse, like many other complex diseases, is heterogeneous and multifactorial. Numerous studies demonstrate a genetic contribution to variation in the expression of alcohol-related disorders in humans. Over the past decade, nonhuman primates have emerged as a valuable model for some aspects of human alcohol abuse because of their phylogenetic proximity to humans. Long-term, longitudinal studies of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) have provided much insight into environmental influences, especially early life experiences, on alcohol consumption and behavior patterns that characterize alcohol intake later in life. It is not known, however, whether there is a genetic component as well to the variation seen in alcohol consumption in rhesus macaques. A significant genetic component to variation in alcohol consumption in rhesus macaques would show for the first time that like humans, for nonhuman primates additive genetic influences are important. Moreover, their use as a model for alcohol-related disorders in humans would have even greater relevance and utility for designing experiments incorporating the expanding molecular genetics field, and allow researchers to investigate the interaction among the known environmental influences and various genotypes.
  
  
  METHODS
  In this study, we investigate factors contributing to variation in alcohol consumption of 156 rhesus macaques collected over 10 years when subjects were adolescent in age, belonging to a single extended pedigree, with each cohort receiving identical early rearing backgrounds and subsequent treatments. To measure alcohol consumption each animal was provided unfettered simultaneous access both to an aspartame-sweetened 8.4% (v/v) alcohol-water solution, the aspartame-sweetened vehicle, and to water for 1 hour each day during the early afternoon between 13:00 and 15:00 in their home cages for a period of 5 to 7 weeks. We use multiple regression to identify factors that significantly affect alcohol consumption among these animals and a maximum likelihood program (ASReml) that, controlling for the significant factors, estimates the genetic contribution to the variance in alcohol consumption.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Multiple regression analysis identified test cohort and rearing environment as contributing to 57 and 2%, respectively, of the total variance in alcohol consumption. Of the remaining 41% of the variance about half (19.8%) was attributable to additive genetic effects using a maximum likelihood program.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This study demonstrates that, as in humans, there are additive genetic factors that contribute to variation in alcohol consumption in rhesus macaques, with other nongenetic factors accounting for substantial portions of the variance in alcohol consumption, Our findings show the presence of an additive genetic component and suggest the potential utility of the nonhuman primate as a molecular genetics tool for understanding alcohol abuse and alcoholism.
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Coriell Institute for Medical Research, Camden, New Jersey 08103, USA. jlorenz@coriell.umdnj.edu
authors.forename: Joseph G
authors.initials: JG
authors.lastname: Lorenz
authors.forename: Jeffrey C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Long
authors.forename: Markku
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Linnoila
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Goldman
authors.forename: Stephen J
authors.initials: SJ
authors.lastname: Suomi
authors.forename: J Dee
authors.initials: JD
authors.lastname: Higley
mesh_terms: D000428:Alcohol Drinking / Q000235:genetics* / Q000523:psychology; D000465:Algorithms; D000818:Animals; D004777:Environment; D005260:Female; D008253:Macaca mulatta; D008297:Male; D010375:Pedigree; D010641:Phenotype; D012044:Regression Analysis