title: Process monitoring in intensive care with the use of cumulative expected minus observed mortality and risk-adjusted P charts.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  A health care system is a complex adaptive system. The effect of a single intervention, incorporated into a complex clinical environment, may be different from that expected. A national database such as the Intensive Care National Audit & Research Centre (ICNARC) Case Mix Programme in the UK represents a centralised monitoring, surveillance and reporting system for retrospective quality and comparative audit. This can be supplemented with real-time process monitoring at a local level for continuous process improvement, allowing early detection of the impact of both unplanned and deliberately imposed changes in the clinical environment.
  
  
  METHODS
  Demographic and UK Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II (APACHE II) data were prospectively collected on all patients admitted to a UK regional hospital between 1 January 2003 and 30 June 2004 in accordance with the ICNARC Case Mix Programme. We present a cumulative expected minus observed (E-O) plot and the risk-adjusted p chart as methods of continuous process monitoring. We describe the construction and interpretation of these charts and show how they can be used to detect planned or unplanned organisational process changes affecting mortality outcomes.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Five hundred and eighty-nine adult patients were included. The overall death rate was 0.78 of predicted. Calibration showed excess survival in ranges above 30% risk of death. The E-O plot confirmed a survival above that predicted. Small transient variations were seen in the slope that could represent random effects, or real but transient changes in the quality of care. The risk-adjusted p chart showed several observations below the 2 SD control limits of the expected mortality rate. These plots provide rapid analysis of risk-adjusted performance suitable for local application and interpretation. The E-O chart provided rapid easily visible feedback of changes in risk-adjusted mortality, while the risk-adjusted p chart allowed statistical evaluation.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Local analysis of risk-adjusted mortality data with an E-O plot and a risk-adjusted p chart is feasible and allows the rapid detection of changes in risk-adjusted outcome of intensive care patients. This complements the centralised national database, which is more archival and comparative in nature.
authors.affiliation: Department of Intensive Care Medicine, Royal Berkshire Hospital, Reading, Berkshire RG1 5AN, UK. jerome.cockings@rbbh-tr.nhs.uk
authors.forename: Jerome G L
authors.initials: JG
authors.lastname: Cockings
authors.forename: David A
authors.initials: DA
authors.lastname: Cook
authors.forename: Rehana K
authors.initials: RK
authors.lastname: Iqbal
mesh_terms: D003422:Critical Care; D016208:Databases, Factual; D017052:Hospital Mortality; D006801:Humans; D007362:Intensive Care Units; D011446:Prospective Studies; D020379:Risk Adjustment; D015996:Survival Rate