Probable cigarette dependence, PTSD, and depression after an urban disaster: results from a population survey of New York City residents 4 months after September 11, 2001.
Disaster exposure may exacerbate psychopathology and substance-related disorders. Four months after September 11, 2001, using random-digit dialing to contact a representative sample of adults (N = 2001) living in New York City, we assessed cigarette smoking and symptoms of probable cigarette dependence using measures from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health. A total of 36.8% of smokers reported increased cigarette use; 10.4% of respondents reported three or more symptoms of cigarette dependence and were considered cases of probable cigarette dependence based on DSM-IV criteria. Cases were more likely to report an increase in cigarette use since September 11 than non-cases (69.4% among cases vs. 2.2% among non-cases, p < 0.001). Cases were more likely to have probable posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression than non-cases (18.1% vs. 5.7% for PTSD, p < 0.001; 23.6% vs. 6.0% for depression, p < 0.001). Increased cigarette use since September 11 was associated with probable PTSD among cases (23.4% vs. 6.4%, p = 0.011) and non-cases (15.1% vs. 5.5%, p = 0.034) but was associated with probable depression only among cases of probable cigarette dependence (28.3% vs. 13.3%, p = 0.027). This study showed the co-occurrence of probable cigarette dependence with increased cigarette use and the co-occurrence of probable cigarette dependence with probable PTSD and depression after September 11.
Nandi
Arijit
A
Center for Urban Epidemiologic Studies, New York Academy of Medicine, USA.
Galea
Sandro
S
Ahern
Jennifer
J
Vlahov
David
D
D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D003863:Depression / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000209:etiology*; D039721:Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009519:New York City / Q000453:epidemiology; D011159:Population Surveillance / Q000379:methods; D047851:September 11 Terrorist Attacks / Q000523:psychology*; D012907:Smoking / Q000453:epidemiology*; D013313:Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000209:etiology*; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D013997:Time Factors; D014029:Tobacco Use Disorder / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000209:etiology*; D014505:Urban Population / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*