title: Pharmaceutical policies: effects of reference pricing, other pricing, and purchasing policies.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Pharmaceuticals can be important for people's health. At the same time drugs are major components of health care costs. Pharmaceutical pricing and purchasing policies are used to determine or affect the prices that are paid for drugs. Examples are price controls, maximum prices, price negotiations, reference pricing, index pricing and volume-based pricing policies. The essence of reference pricing is to establish a maximum level of reimbursement for a group of drugs assumed to be therapeutically equivalent.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To determine the effects of pharmaceutical pricing and purchasing policies on drug use, healthcare utilisation, health outcomes and costs (expenditures).
  
  
  METHODS
  We searched the following databases and web sites: Effective Practice and Organisation of Care Group Register (date of last search: 22/08/03), Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (15/10/03), MEDLINE (07/09/05), EMBASE (07/09/05), ISI Web of Science (08/09/05), CSA Worldwide Political Science Abstracts (21/10/03), EconLit (23/10/03), SIGLE (12/11/03), INRUD (21/11/03), PAIS International (23/03/04), International Political Science Abstracts (09/01/04), NHS EED (20/02/04), PubMed (25/02/04), NTIS (03/03/04), IPA (22/04/04), OECD Publications & Documents (30/08/05), SourceOECD (30/08/05), World Bank Documents & Reports (30/08/05), World Bank e-Library (04/05/05), JOLIS (22/08/05), Global Jolis (22/08/05 and 23/08/05), WHOLIS (29/08/05).
  
  
  METHODS
  Policies in this review were defined as laws, rules, financial and administrative orders made by governments, non-government organisations or private insurers. To be included a study had to include an objective measure of at least one of the following outcomes: drug use, healthcare utilisation, health outcomes, and costs (expenditures); the study must be a randomised controlled trial, non-randomised controlled trial, interrupted time series analysis, repeated measures study or controlled before-after study of a pharmaceutical pricing or purchasing policy for a large jurisdiction or system of care.
  
  
  METHODS
  Two reviewers independently extracted data and assessed study limitations. Quantitative analysis of time series data, for studies with sufficient data, and qualitative analyses were undertaken.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We included 10 studies of reference pricing and one study of index pricing. Most of the reference pricing studies were for senior citizens in British Columbia, Canada. The use (dispensing) of reference drugs increased in five studies, between 60% and 196% immediately after introduction of reference drug pricing, whereas the use of cost sharing drugs decreased by between 19% and 42% in four studies. In three studies the reference drug group expenditures decreased (range 19% - 50%), whereas in the fourth study the expenditures increased by 5% in the short term. The results after six months of reference pricing do not show any clear pattern in relationship to the immediate effects. We found no evidence of adverse effects on health and no clear evidence of increased health care utilisation. For index pricing the evidence was much more limited than for reference drug pricing. A small reduction in drug prices was found.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We found relatively few studies of pricing policies. The majority of the studies dealt with reference pricing. They had few methodological limitations. Based on the evidence in this review, mostly from senior citizens in British Columbia, Canada, reference drug pricing can reduce third party drug expenditures by inducing a shift in drug use towards less expensive drugs. We found no evidence of adverse effects on health and no clear evidence of increased health care utilisation. The analysis and reporting of the effects on patient drug expenditures were limited in the included studies and administration costs were not reported.
authors.affiliation: Norwegian Knowledge Centre for Health Services, Department of Health Services Research, PO Box 7004 St Olavs Plass, Universitetsgaten 2, Oslo, Norway, 0130. Morten.Aaserud@kunnskapssenteret.no
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Aaserud
authors.forename: A T
authors.initials: AT
authors.lastname: Dahlgren
authors.forename: J P
authors.initials: JP
authors.lastname: Kösters
authors.forename: A D
authors.initials: AD
authors.lastname: Oxman
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Ramsay
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Sturm
mesh_terms: D003363:Cost Control; D017047:Cost Sharing; D016527:Drug Costs; D004335:Drug and Narcotic Control; D017850:Economics, Pharmaceutical; D005102:Health Expenditures; D006301:Health Services Needs and Demand; D007349:Insurance, Health, Reimbursement / Q000191:economics