title: Reading errors in first- and second-grade readers of a shallow orthography: evidence from Spanish.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Studies focusing on reading errors can help to understand how children learn to read and to structure key components of reading instruction. However, no prior studies have examined which letters might be a greater source of difficulty for beginning readers in Spanish.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  First, to examine the pattern of reading errors in beginning readers in a shallow orthography like Spanish with a particular focus on both the context-dependant (c, g, r) and the visual similar (b, d, g, p, q) consonants. (The dual-route cascade model is used as a theoretical framework for predictions.) Second, to examine the effect of visual similarity on orientation reversals, using upper and lower case letters.
  
  
  METHODS
  Ninety Spanish-speaking children (45 in Grade 1 and 45 in Grade 2) participated in the study.
  
  
  METHODS
  Children were required to read aloud both words and non-words. Seven categories of errors were examined. To clarify the influence of visual similarity of easily confused consonants (b, d), upper and lower case letters were used.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We found that most reading errors (as a function of opportunity) were due to context-dependant consonants (c, g, r), and a small proportion were due to the remaining consonants, or even the visually-similar consonants. Further, visual similarity of reversible letters had a significant effect on orientation reversals. Finally, there was a significant influence of factors such as syllable frequency on the number of word errors.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The implications of these findings for early reading instruction and future research are discussed.
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Psicopedogogío, University of Deusto, Apartado 1, 48080 Bilbao, Spain. egoiko@fice.deusto.es
authors.forename: Edurne
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Goikoetxea
mesh_terms: D002648:Child; D004193:Discrimination Learning; D005260:Female; D005556:Form Perception; D006801:Humans; D007858:Learning; D008297:Male; D010364:Pattern Recognition, Visual; D011932:Reading; D013030:Spain; D013663:Teaching