title: Slow fertilization of stickleback eggs: the result of sexual conflict?
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The fertilization success in sperm competition in externally fertilizing fish depends on number and quality of sperm. The time delay between sequential ejaculations may further influence the outcome of sperm competition. Such a time interval can load the raffle over fertilization if fertilization takes place very fast. Short fertilization times are generally assumed for externally fertilizing fish such as the three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus). In this pair-spawning fish, territorial males often try to steal fertilizations in nests of neighbouring males. This sneaking behaviour causes sperm competition. Sneakers will only get a share of paternity when eggs are not fertilized immediately after sperm release. Contrary to males, females may be interested in multiple paternity of their clutch of eggs. There thus may be a sexual conflict over the speed of fertilization.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In this study we used two different in vitro fertilization experiments to assess how fast eggs are fertilized in sticklebacks. We show that complete fertilization takes more than 5 min which is atypically long for externally fertilizing fishes.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This result suggests that the time difference does not imply high costs to the second stickleback male to ejaculate. Slow fertilization (and concomitant prolonged longevity of sperm) may be the result of sexual conflict in which females aimed at complete fertilization and/or multiple paternity.
authors.affiliation: Institute for Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, University of Bonn, An der Immenburg 1, D-53121 Bonn, Germany. t.bakker@uni-bonn.de
authors.forename: Theo C M
authors.initials: TC
authors.lastname: Bakker
authors.forename: Marc
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Zbinden
authors.forename: Joachim G
authors.initials: JG
authors.lastname: Frommen
authors.forename: Alexander
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Weiss
authors.forename: Carlo R
authors.initials: CR
authors.lastname: Largiadèr
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002470:Cell Survival; D005260:Female; D005306:Fertilization / Q000502:physiology*; D008297:Male; D012726:Sexual Behavior, Animal; D023701:Smegmamorpha / Q000502:physiology*; D013094:Spermatozoa / Q000502:physiology*; D013997:Time Factors