title: Mechanism of plasmid delivery by hydrodynamic tail vein injection. II. Morphological studies.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The efficient delivery of plasmid DNA (pDNA) to hepatocytes by a hydrodynamic tail vein (HTV) procedure has greatly popularized the use of naked nucleic acids. The hydrodynamic process renders onto the tissue increased physical forces in terms of increased pressures and shear forces that could lead to transient or permanent membrane damage. It can also trigger a series of cellular events to seal or reorganize the stretched membrane. Our goal was to study the uptake mechanism by following the morphological changes in the liver and correlate these with the fate of the injected plasmid DNA.
  
  
  METHODS
  We utilized both light microscopic (LM) and electron microscopic (EM) techniques to determine the effect of the HTV procedure on hepatocytes and non-parenchymal cells at various times after injection. The LM studies used paraffin-embedded livers with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining. The immune-EM studies used antibodies labeled with sub-nanometer gold particles followed by silver enhancement to identify the location of injected pDNA at the subcellular level. The level of overall damage to liver cells was estimated based on alanine aminotransferase (ALT) release and clearance.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Both the LM and EM results showed the appearance of large vesicles in hepatocytes as early as 5 min post-injection. The number of vesicles decreased by 20-60 min. Plasmid DNA molecules often appeared to be associated with or inside such vesicles. DNA could also be detected in the space of Disse, in the cytoplasm and in nuclei. Non-parenchymal cells also contained DNA, but HTV-induced vesicles could not be observed in them.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our studies suggest an alternative or additional pathway for naked DNA into hepatocytes besides direct entry via membrane pores. It may be difficult to prove which of these pathways lead to gene expression, but the membrane pore hypothesis alone appears insufficient to explain why expression happens preferentially in hepatocytes. Further study is needed to delineate the importance of each of these putative pathways and their interrelationship in enabling oligonucleotide (siRNA) activity and pDNA expression.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pediatrics and Medical Genetics, Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1500 Highland Ave., Madison, WI 53705, USA.
authors.forename: Vladimir G
authors.initials: VG
authors.lastname: Budker
authors.forename: Vladimir M
authors.initials: VM
authors.lastname: Subbotin
authors.forename: Tatiana
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Budker
authors.forename: Magdolna G
authors.initials: MG
authors.lastname: Sebestyén
authors.forename: Guofeng
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Zhang
authors.forename: Jon A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Wolff
mesh_terms: D000410:Alanine Transaminase / Q000097:blood; D000818:Animals; D001693:Biological Transport, Active; D004247:DNA / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism; D015870:Gene Expression; D018014:Gene Transfer Techniques; D022781:Hepatocytes / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000648:ultrastructure*; D007275:Injections, Intravenous / Q000379:methods; D051379:Mice; D008813:Mice, Inbred ICR; D016253:Microscopy, Immunoelectron; D010957:Plasmids / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000235:genetics; D011312:Pressure; D013623:Tail / Q000098:blood supply
chemical_list: D004247:DNA; D000410:Alanine Transaminase