Iron fortification reduces blood lead levels in children in Bangalore, India.
OBJECTIVE
Chronic lead poisoning and iron deficiency are concentrated in urban children from lower socioeconomic strata, and both impair neurocognitive development. Our study objective was to determine if iron fortification reduces blood lead levels in urban, lead-exposed, iron-deficient children in Bangalore, India.


METHODS
A randomized, double-blind, controlled school-based feeding trial was done in 5- to 13-year-old iron-deficient children (n = 186). At baseline, a high prevalence of lead poisoning was found in the younger children. Subsequently, all 5- to 9-year-old children participating in the trial (n = 134) were followed to determine if iron fortification would affect their blood lead levels.


METHODS
Children were dewormed and fed 6 days/week for 16 weeks either an iron-fortified rice meal (approximately 15 mg of iron per day as ferric pyrophosphate) or an identical control meal without added iron. Feeding was directly supervised and compliance monitored.


METHODS
Hemoglobin, serum ferritin, C-reactive protein, transferrin receptor, zinc protoporphyrin, and blood lead concentrations were measured.


RESULTS
The prevalence of iron deficiency was significantly reduced in the iron group (from 70% to 28%) compared with the control group (76% to 55%). There was a significant decrease in median blood lead concentration in the iron group compared with the control group. The prevalence of blood lead levels > or =10 microg/dL was significantly reduced in the iron group (from 65% to 29%) compared with the control group (68% to 55%).


CONCLUSIONS
Our findings suggest providing iron in a fortified food to lead-exposed children may reduce chronic lead intoxication. Iron fortification may be an effective and sustainable strategy to accompany environmental lead abatement.
Zimmermann
Michael B
MB
Laboratory for Human Nutrition, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zürich, Switzerland. michael.zimmermann@ilw.agrl.ethz.ch
Muthayya
Sumithra
S
Moretti
Diego
D
Kurpad
Anura
A
Hurrell
Richard F
RF
D000293:Adolescent; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D011756:Diphosphates / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D004311:Double-Blind Method; D005527:Food, Fortified; D006801:Humans; D007194:India; D007501:Iron / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000090463:Iron Deficiencies; D007854:Lead / Q000097:blood*; D007855:Lead Poisoning / Q000097:blood* / Q000188:drug therapy*; D014505:Urban Population
D011756:Diphosphates; D007854:Lead; D007501:Iron; C049051:ferric pyrophosphate