title: Menstrual cycle bleeding patterns in cigarette smokers.
abstract: It is known that women who smoke cigarettes and use oral contraceptives are more likely to have breakthrough bleeding than women who do not smoke. In this article, we review possible mechanisms by which cigarette smoke and its constituents may contribute to irregular bleeding, highlight differences in the activities of nicotine and cigarette smoke, and postulate further studies in the area.
authors.affiliation: Division of Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Women's Health, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292, USA.
authors.forename: Michael P
authors.initials: MP
authors.lastname: Grossman
authors.forename: Steven T
authors.initials: ST
authors.lastname: Nakajima
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D003367:Cotinine / Q000494:pharmacology; D003577:Cytochrome P-450 Enzyme System / Q000378:metabolism; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008598:Menstruation / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology*; D008599:Menstruation Disturbances / Q000209:etiology*; D018919:Neovascularization, Physiologic / Q000187:drug effects; D009538:Nicotine / Q000378:metabolism / Q000494:pharmacology; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000503:physiopathology
chemical_list: D009538:Nicotine; D003577:Cytochrome P-450 Enzyme System; D003367:Cotinine