title: Recent developments in the pharmacological management of pain in children.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  This review explores progress in developmental pharmacokinetics, pharmacogenomics and formulations of analgesic agents, and discusses potential implications for pain therapy.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Characterization of the developmental pharmacokinetics of morphine, tramadol, paracetamol and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs has improved dosing in children. Oral sugar solutions have replaced the brandy/sugar pacifier and are effective for single painful events in neonates. Intravenous paracetamol offers increased dosing accuracy, and avoids absorption and bioavailability variability. New nitric-oxide-releasing versions of paracetamol and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs offer safer alternatives to their parent drugs with enhanced potency. Ketamine has come under a cloud for its possible effects on the neonatal developing brain, but it is being used increasingly in children to supplement opioids for pain after major surgery. Hopes that morphine analgesia may improve neurological outcome in premature babies have not materialized. Reports concerning chronic pain are generally case series and controlled trials are rare and nearly nonexistent in children.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Unlicensed drug use in the very young will increase as familiarity increases. Pharmacogenomic studies have the potential to tailor drug therapy to the individual and decrease between-patient variability. Unfortunately, the pharmacodynamic knowledge in children of analgesic agents remains neglected and is usually extrapolated from adult data.
authors.affiliation: Department of Anaesthesiology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand, and Department of Anaesthesia and Pain Management, Royal Children's Hospital, Victoria, Australia. briana@adhb.govt.nz
authors.forename: Brian J
authors.initials: BJ
authors.lastname: Anderson
authors.forename: Greta M
authors.initials: GM
authors.lastname: Palmer
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000700:Analgesics / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000493:pharmacokinetics / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D010146:Pain / Q000188:drug therapy*
chemical_list: D000700:Analgesics