title: Chronic exposure to everyday discrimination and coronary artery calcification in African-American women: the SWAN Heart Study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Emerging evidence suggests that exposure to discrimination may be associated with atherosclerosis in African-American women, although research in this area focused on short-term rather than chronic exposure to discriminatory events.
  
  
  METHODS
  We examined the relationship between chronic exposure to multiple types of discrimination (self-reported and averaged over 5 years) and coronary artery calcification (CAC) in a sample of 181 middle-aged African-American women. Discrimination was assessed at each time point, and the presence/absence of CAC was assessed at the fifth annual follow-up examination by electron beam tomography. We hypothesized that chronic discrimination would be more strongly associated with CAC than recent discrimination and that racial/ethnic discrimination would be more strongly associated with CAC than other types of discrimination.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Chronic exposure to discrimination was significantly associated with the presence of CAC in unadjusted logistic regression analyses (p = .007) and after adjustment for demographics (p = .01), standard cardiovascular risk factors (p = .02), and Body Mass Index (BMI) (p = .05). In contrast, recent discrimination was only marginally associated with the presence of CAC in both unadjusted (p = .06) and fully adjusted logistic regression models (p = .08). Persistent exposure to racial/ethnic discrimination was not more strongly associated with CAC compared with other types of discrimination in either unadjusted or adjusted models.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Chronic exposure to discrimination may be an important risk factor for early coronary calcification in African-American women. This association appears to be driven by exposure to discrimination from multiple sources, rather than exposure to racial/ethnic discrimination alone.
authors.affiliation: Department of Preventive Medicine, Rush University Medical Center, 1700 W. Van Buren, Suite 470. Chicago, Illinois 60612, USA. tene_lewis@rush.edu
authors.forename: Tené T
authors.initials: TT
authors.lastname: Lewis
authors.forename: Susan A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Everson-Rose
authors.forename: Lynda H
authors.initials: LH
authors.lastname: Powell
authors.forename: Karen A
authors.initials: KA
authors.lastname: Matthews
authors.forename: Charlotte
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Brown
authors.forename: Kelly
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Karavolos
authors.forename: Kim
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Sutton-Tyrrell
authors.forename: Elizabeth
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Jacobs
authors.forename: Deidre
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Wesley
mesh_terms: D001741:Black or African American / Q000523:psychology*; D002114:Calcinosis / Q000523:psychology*; D003324:Coronary Artery Disease / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000523:psychology*; D003863:Depression / Q000523:psychology; D005260:Female; D006791:Hostility; D006801:Humans; D008875:Middle Aged; D011287:Prejudice; D012737:Sex Factors