title: Appetite regulatory hormone responses to various dietary proteins differ by body mass index status despite similar reductions in ad libitum energy intake.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Although dietary protein produces higher acute satiety relative to carbohydrate, the influence of protein source and body mass index (BMI) has not been clearly described.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  The objective of the study was to assess postprandial responses to different protein sources, compared with glucose, in males with normal and high BMI.
  
  
  METHODS
  This was a randomized, crossover study of four preloads followed by blood sampling (+15, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 180 min) and buffet meal.
  
  
  METHODS
  The study was conducted at an outpatient clinic.
  
  
  METHODS
  The study population included 72 men, with a BMI range 20.6-39.9 kg/m(2).
  
  
  METHODS
  Interventions consisted of liquid preloads (1.1 MJ, 450 ml) containing 50 g whey, soy, gluten, or glucose.
  
  
  METHODS
  Fasting and postprandial plasma glucose, insulin, ghrelin, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and cholecystokinin (n = 38), ad libitum energy intake, and appetite ratings were measured.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Energy intake was 10% lower after all protein preloads, compared with the glucose treatment (P < 0.05), independent of BMI status and protein type. All protein loads prolonged the postprandial suppression of ghrelin (P < 0.01) and elevation of GLP-1 (P < 0.01) and cholecystokinin (P < 0.05). Fasting GLP-1 concentrations [overweight, 17.5 +/- 1.3; lean, 14.7 +/- 0.1 pg/ml (5.2 +/- 0.4 and 4.4 +/- 0.1 pmol/liter, respectively); P < 0.001] and postprandial responses (P = 0.038) were higher in overweight subjects.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Whey, soy, and gluten similarly tend to reduce ad libitum food intake 3 h later in lean and overweight males relative to glucose. Postprandial ghrelin, GLP-1, insulin, and cholecystokinin may contribute to this higher satiety after protein consumption. GLP-1 concentrations are increased in overweight subjects, which may affect satiety responses in this group.
authors.affiliation: Department of Human Nutrition, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Adelaide SA 5000, Australia. jane.bowen@csiro.au
authors.forename: Jane
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Bowen
authors.forename: Manny
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Noakes
authors.forename: Peter M
authors.initials: PM
authors.lastname: Clifton
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D001069:Appetite Regulation / Q000502:physiology*; D001786:Blood Glucose / Q000032:analysis; D015992:Body Mass Index; D001835:Body Weight; D002766:Cholecystokinin / Q000097:blood; D018592:Cross-Over Studies; D004044:Dietary Proteins / Q000494:pharmacology*; D004435:Eating / Q000187:drug effects; D002149:Energy Intake; D054439:Ghrelin; D052216:Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 / Q000097:blood; D005983:Glutens / Q000494:pharmacology; D006728:Hormones / Q000097:blood*; D006801:Humans; D007328:Insulin / Q000097:blood; D007700:Kinetics; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D008894:Milk Proteins / Q000494:pharmacology; D009765:Obesity / Q000097:blood; D036361:Peptide Hormones / Q000097:blood; D012044:Regression Analysis; D012527:Satiation / Q000502:physiology; D030262:Soybean Proteins / Q000494:pharmacology; D000067816:Whey Proteins
chemical_list: D001786:Blood Glucose; D004044:Dietary Proteins; D054439:Ghrelin; D006728:Hormones; D007328:Insulin; D008894:Milk Proteins; D036361:Peptide Hormones; D030262:Soybean Proteins; D000067816:Whey Proteins; D005983:Glutens; D052216:Glucagon-Like Peptide 1; D002766:Cholecystokinin