Pharmacological strategies for the regulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase: neurodegenerative versus neuroprotective mechanisms.
Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) is one of three NOS isoforms generating nitric oxide (NO) by the conversion of l-arginine to l-citrulline. iNOS has been found to be a major contributor to initiation/exacerbation of the central nervous system (CNS) inflammatory/degenerative conditions through the production of excessive NO which generates reactive nitrogen species (RNSs). Activation of iNOS and NO generation has come to be accepted as a marker and therapeutic target in neuroinflammatory conditions such as those observed in ischemia, multiple sclerosis (MS), spinal cord injury (SCI), Alzheimer's disease (AD), and inherited peroxisomal (e.g. X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy; X-ALD) and lysosomal disorders (e.g. Krabbe's disease). However, with the emergence of reports on the neuroprotective facets of NO, the prior dogma about NO being solely detrimental has had to be modified. While RNSs such as peroxynitrite (ONOO(-)) have been linked to lipid peroxidation, neuronal/oligodendrocyte loss, and demyelination in neurodegenerative diseases, limited NO generation by GSNO has been found to promote vasodilation and attenuate vascular injury under the same ischemic conditions. NO generated from GSNO acts as second messenger molecular which through S-nitrosylation has been shown to control important cellular processes by regulation of expression/activity of certain proteins such as NF-kappaB. It is now believed that the environment and the context in which NO is produced largely determines the actions (good or bad) of this molecule. These multi-faceted aspects of NO make therapeutic interference with iNOS activity even more complicated since complete ablation of iNOS activity has been found to be rather more detrimental than protective in most neurodegenerative conditions. Investigators in search of iNOS modulating pharmacological agents have realized the need of a delicate balance so as to allow the production of physiologically relevant amounts of NO (such as those required for host defence/neutotransmission/vasodilation, etc.) but at the same time block the generation of RNSs through repressing excessive NO levels (such as those causing neuronal/tissue damage and demyelination, etc.). The past years have seen a noteworthy increase in novel agents that might prove useful in achieving the aim of harnessing the good and blocking the undesirable actions of NO. It is the aim of this review to provide basic insights into the NOS family of enzymes with special emphasis of the role of iNOS in the CNS, in the first part. In the second part of the review, we will strive to provide an exhaustive compilation of the prevalent strategies being tested for the therapeutic modulation of iNOS and NO production.
Pannu
Ravinder
R
Centre for Developmental Neurological Disorders, Charles P. Darby Children's Research Institute, Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, United States.
Singh
Inderjit
I
D000818:Animals; D000975:Antioxidants / Q000494:pharmacology / Q000627:therapeutic use; D001921:Brain / Q000187:drug effects / Q000201:enzymology* / Q000503:physiopathology; D019610:Cytoprotection / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology*; D004660:Encephalitis / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000517:prevention & control; D004791:Enzyme Inhibitors / Q000494:pharmacology / Q000627:therapeutic use; D006801:Humans; D019636:Neurodegenerative Diseases / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000517:prevention & control; D009569:Nitric Oxide / Q000096:biosynthesis*; D020030:Nitric Oxide Donors / Q000494:pharmacology / Q000627:therapeutic use; D052247:Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism*; D026361:Reactive Nitrogen Species / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors / Q000096:biosynthesis
D000975:Antioxidants; D004791:Enzyme Inhibitors; D020030:Nitric Oxide Donors; D026361:Reactive Nitrogen Species; D009569:Nitric Oxide; D052247:Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II