title: Skeletal muscle apoptosis in experimental heart failure: the only link between inflammation and skeletal muscle wastage?
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The purpose of this review is to enlighten the mechanisms of muscle wastage in experimental heart failure with attention to skeletal muscle apoptosis and the role of proinflammatory cytokines that trigger apoptosis.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Mechanisms leading to muscle wastage in chronic heart failure include cytokine-triggered skeletal muscle apoptosis, but also ubiquitin/proteasome and non-ubiquitin-dependent pathways. The regulation of fibre type involves the growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor 1/calcineurin/transcriptional coactivator PGC1 cascade.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Several mechanisms can lead to muscle wastage in heart failure. The imbalance between protein synthesis and degradation plays an important role. Protein degradation can occur through ubiquitin-dependent and non-ubiquitin-dependent pathways. Systems controlling ubiquitin/proteasome activation have been described. These are triggered by tumour necrosis factor alpha and growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor 1. However, an important role is played by apoptosis. In humans and experimental models of heart failure programmed cell death has been found in skeletal muscle and interstitial cells. Apoptosis is triggered by tumour necrosis factor alpha and in-vitro experiments have shown that it can be induced by its second messenger sphingosine. Apoptosis correlates with the severity of the heart failure syndrome. It involves activation of caspases 3 and 9 and mitochondrial cytochrome c release.
authors.affiliation: Internal Medicine 1, S. Bortolo Hospital, 36100 Vicenza, Italy. gvescovo@yahoo.it
authors.forename: Giorgio
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Vescovo
authors.forename: Luciano
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Dalla Libera
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D017209:Apoptosis / Q000502:physiology*; D053148:Caspase 3 / Q000378:metabolism; D053453:Caspase 9 / Q000378:metabolism; D016207:Cytokines / Q000096:biosynthesis; D004195:Disease Models, Animal; D004734:Energy Metabolism / Q000502:physiology*; D006333:Heart Failure / Q000378:metabolism / Q000503:physiopathology*; D006801:Humans; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000378:metabolism / Q000473:pathology*; D009133:Muscular Atrophy / Q000378:metabolism / Q000473:pathology*; D014409:Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha / Q000502:physiology
chemical_list: D016207:Cytokines; D014409:Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha; D053148:Caspase 3; D053453:Caspase 9