title: The teacher as observer and experimenter in the modification of disputing and talking-out behaviors.
abstract: Disputing and talking-out behaviors of individual pupils and entire classroom groups in special education classes and regular classes from white middle-class areas and from all black poverty areas ranging from the first grade to junior high school were studied. The classroom teacher in each case acted as the experimenter and as an observer. Various means of recording behaviors were used and reliability of observation was checked by an outside observer, another teacher, a teacher-aide, a student, or by using a tape recorder. Observation sessions varied from 15 min to an entire school day. After baseline rates were obtained, extinction of inappropriate disputing or talking-out behaviors and reinforcement of appropriate behavior with teacher attention, praise and in some cases a desired classroom activity or a surprise at the end of the week brought a decrease in undesired verbalizations. A reversal of contingencies brought a return to high levels of inappropriate talking with a return to low levels when reinforcement for appropriate talking was reinstated. The experiments demonstrated that teachers in a variety of classroom settings could obtain reliable observational records and carry out experimental manipulations successfully using resources available in most schools.
authors.affiliation: University of Kansas.
authors.forename: R V
authors.initials: RV
authors.lastname: Hall
authors.forename: R
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Fox
authors.forename: D
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Willard
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Goldsmith
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Emerson
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Owen
authors.forename: F
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Davis
authors.forename: E
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Porcia