Symptoms of post-traumatic stress: intrusion and avoidance 6 and 12 months after TBI.
OBJECTIVE
(1) To examine survivors with traumatic brain injury (TBI) for symptoms of avoidance and intrusion, two dimensions of post-traumatic stress (PTS) at 6 and 12 months post-injury. (2) To identify risk factors associated with these symptoms.


METHODS
Prospective follow-up study.


METHODS
Georgia and North Carolina Model Brain Injury Systems participants (n = 198) with mild (19%), moderate (21%) and severe (60%) TBI were interviewed by telephone at 6 and 12 months post-injury. The Impact of Event Scale (IES) was used to identify intrusion and avoidance symptoms.


RESULTS
Symptoms consistent with severe PTS increased from 11% at 6 months to 16% 12 months post-injury (p < 0.003). African-Americans (p < 0.01) and women (p < 0.05) reported greater symptomatology at 12 months compared to their counterparts. TBI severity and memory of the event were not associated with PTS-like symptoms. Symptoms increased over time when examined by race, injury intent, gender and age (p < 0.05).


CONCLUSIONS
Regardless of severity, survivors with TBI are at risk for developing symptoms consistent with PTS. Amnesia for the injury event was not protective against developing these symptoms. African-Americans appear to be at greatest risk.
Greenspan
Arlene I
AI
National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA. agreenspan@cdc.gov
Stringer
Anthony Y
AY
Phillips
V L
VL
Hammond
Flora M
FM
Goldstein
Felicia C
FC
D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D001741:Black or African American; D020324:Amnesia, Anterograde / Q000209:etiology / Q000523:psychology; D001930:Brain Injuries / Q000209:etiology / Q000523:psychology*; D004812:Epidemiologic Methods; D005260:Female; D015600:Glasgow Coma Scale; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D011569:Psychiatric Status Rating Scales; D012737:Sex Factors; D013313:Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000208:ethnology / Q000523:psychology*