title: Heat and mass transfer scale-up issues during freeze-drying, III: control and characterization of dryer differences via operational qualification tests.
abstract: The objective of this research was to estimate differences in heat and mass transfer between freeze dryers due to inherent design characteristics using data obtained from sublimation tests. This study also aimed to provide guidelines for convenient scale-up of the freeze-drying process. Data obtained from sublimation tests performed on laboratory-scale, pilot, and production freeze dryers were used to evaluate various heat and mass transfer parameters: nonuniformity in shelf surface temperatures, resistance of pipe, refrigeration system, and condenser. Emissivity measurements of relevant surfaces such as the chamber wall and the freeze dryer door were taken to evaluate the impact of atypical radiation heat transfer during scale-up. "Hot" and "cold" spots were identified on the shelf surface of different freeze dryers, and the impact of variation in shelf surface temperatures on the primary drying time and the product temperature during primary drying was studied. Calculations performed using emissivity measurements on different freeze dryers suggest that a front vial in the laboratory lyophilizer received 1.8 times more heat than a front vial in a manufacturing freeze dryer operating at a shelf temperature of -25 degrees C and a chamber pressure of 150 mTorr during primary drying. Therefore, front vials in the laboratory are much more atypical than front vials in manufacturing. Steady-state heat and mass transfer equations were used to study a combination of different scale-up issues pertinent during lyophilization cycles commonly used for the freeze-drying of pharmaceuticals.
authors.affiliation: School of Pharmacy, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Rambhatla
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Tchessalov
authors.forename: Michael J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Pikal
mesh_terms: D002626:Chemistry, Pharmaceutical / Q000295:instrumentation* / Q000379:methods; D003198:Computer Simulation; D004867:Equipment Design; D019544:Equipment Failure Analysis; D005612:Freeze Drying / Q000295:instrumentation* / Q000379:methods; D008956:Models, Chemical; D010865:Pilot Projects; D011786:Quality Control; D014867:Water / Q000032:analysis / Q000737:chemistry*
chemical_list: D014867:Water