title: Environmental and childhood lead contamination in the proximity of boat-repair yards in southern Thailand--I: pattern and factors related to soil and household dust lead levels.
abstract: High blood lead levels have recently been documented in schoolchildren living in communities adjacent to boat-repair yards in southern Thailand. In this study, the spatial pattern of lead contamination of soil and household dust in an area surrounding several boat-repair yards is described, and household factors associated with elevated dust lead are identified. A cross-sectional spatial study was conducted in a coastal residential area within a distance of 2 km from three major boat-repair yards situated on the east coast of peninsular Thailand. Household dust specimens were collected from an undisturbed position in the residences of children, aged 4-14 years, sampled randomly from all children living in the study area. Soil specimens were obtained from the interstices of a square grid, 70 x 70 m2, superimposed on the area. Geographic coordinates of residence and soil sampling positions were recorded and semivariograms and kriging used to contour the spatial distribution of lead in dust and soil. Environmental lead levels were also modeled in terms of direction and minimum distance from a boat-repair yard and, for household dust lead content, in terms of household variables, including occupation of household members in boat-repair work, type of house construction, and general cleanliness. Household dust and soil lead content ranged from 10 to 3025 mg/kg and from 1 to 7700 mg/kg, respectively. The distribution of soil lead peaked at the location of the boat-repair yards, but outside the yards the distribution was generally below 400 mg/kg and irregular. About 24% of household dust lead specimens were equal to or above 400 mg/kg, but showed significant decrease with increasing distance from the boat-repair yards, at rates of between 7% and 14% per 100 m. In houses where a family member was a worker in one of the major boatyards and in houses where occasional repair of small boats was undertaken, household dust lead levels were significantly elevated, by 65% (95% CI: 18-130%) and 31% (95% CI: 5-63%), respectively. Siting of boat-repair yards at a distance from residential areas and measures to reduce the spread of lead-containing dust are recommended to alleviate the problem of elevated household dust lead levels.
authors.affiliation: Epidemiology Unit, Faculty of Medicine, Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla 90110, Thailand.
authors.forename: Nipa
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Maharachpong
authors.forename: Alan
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Geater
authors.forename: Virasakdi
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Chongsuvivatwong
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000393:Air Pollutants / Q000032:analysis*; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D004391:Dust / Q000032:analysis*; D004784:Environmental Monitoring / Q000379:methods*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007221:Industry; D007854:Lead / Q000032:analysis*; D007855:Lead Poisoning / Q000209:etiology; D008297:Male; D016273:Occupational Exposure / Q000032:analysis; D012111:Residence Characteristics / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D012767:Ships; D012989:Soil Pollutants / Q000032:analysis*; D013785:Thailand
chemical_list: D000393:Air Pollutants; D004391:Dust; D012989:Soil Pollutants; D007854:Lead