title: Beliefs and practices concerning twins, hermaphrodites, and albinos among the Bamana and Maninka of Mali.
abstract: The Bamana and Maninka of Mali greatly value twins, and have elaborated a range of cultural beliefs and practices to assure their survival. Rates of twinning among these two ethnic groups average from 15.2/1000 to 17.9/1000 births compared to 10.5/1000 births (without assisted reproduction) in the United States and Great Britain. Twins (flaniw) are regarded as extraordinary beings with unusual powers, and as a gift from the supreme deity. A small altar (sinzin) is maintained in the home of twins, and periodic sacrifices of chicken blood, kola nuts, millet paste and millet beer regularly made to assure their protection. Albinos (yéfeguéw) and true and pseudo-hermaphrodites (tyéténousotéw) are also considered twin beings. However, they are believed to be the result of aberrant parental social behavior. The Bamana and Maninka believe that all four groups (twins, albinos, hermaphrodites, and pseudo-harmaphrodites) are closely linked to Faro, an androgynous supernatural being who provides equilibrium in the world. Faro is the original albino and hermaphrodite who gave birth to the first pair of twins after self-impregnation. Whenever a twin dies, a small wooden statue is sculpted called a flanitokélé (twin that remains). This commemorative figure is kept close to the surviving twin, reflecting a belief in the inseparability of twins. Eventually, the surviving twin takes responsibility for the figure. When a surviving twin marries, another figure is often sculpted in the opposite sex from the deceased twin, and placed with the original sculpture. Such commemorative sculptures are not created upon the death of those who are albinos, hermaphrodites, or pseudo-hermaphrodites. In recent years, transformational belief patterns have evolved as increasing numbers of Bamana and Maninka embrace Islam. Traditional beliefs are often given Islamic myths of origin. However, even in this Islamic context, many practices that assure twin survival are maintained.
authors.affiliation: Department of Preventive Medicine and Community Health, State University of New York, Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA.
authors.forename: Gavin H
authors.initials: GH
authors.lastname: Imperato
authors.forename: Pascal James
authors.initials: PJ
authors.lastname: Imperato
mesh_terms: D000417:Albinism / Q000208:ethnology / Q000235:genetics / Q000523:psychology; D001294:Attitude to Health / Q000208:ethnology*; D003469:Culture; D012734:Disorders of Sex Development / Q000208:ethnology / Q000235:genetics / Q000523:psychology; D005006:Ethnicity / Q000193:education*; D005260:Female; D005495:Folklore; D007722:Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice; D006801:Humans; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D008302:Mali; D011247:Pregnancy; D015995:Prevalence; D012613:Sculpture; D012922:Social Change; D012945:Social Values / Q000208:ethnology; D029181:Spirituality; D014427:Twins / Q000208:ethnology / Q000235:genetics / Q000523:psychology