title: Low levels of environmental ammonia increase susceptibility to disease in Chinook salmon smolts.
abstract: Ammonia criteria are established using data from standardized toxicity tests involving healthy animals. Both intrinsic and extrinsic environmental changes affect the immune system, but few toxicity studies consider the overall impact on this system and potential changes in resistance to infection. To investigate the effects of subacute levels of ammonia in coastal waters on physiological and immunological systems of fish, juvenile Chinook salmon were maintained in seawater (10 degrees C, pH 7.8) and exposed to two concentrations of ammonia, 2.5 and 10 mg/L total nitrogen. Both test levels resulted in increased internal levels of ammonia in the fish. Neither treatment level affected feeding rates. Over a time course of 10 d, numerous significant effects were observed. White blood cell counts changed significantly, as did respiratory burst activity, plasma lysozyme activity, and plasma glucose concentration in both treatments compared to controls. In an experimental infection with Vibrio anguillarum, fish previously exposed to subacute levels of ammonia were more susceptible to pathogenic challenge. The findings of this study indicate that a more thorough investigation into the effects of environmental ammonia on fish populations in coastal waters should be undertaken and the current environmental standards reassessed.
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
authors.forename: Paige A
authors.initials: PA
authors.lastname: Ackerman
authors.forename: Beverly J
authors.initials: BJ
authors.lastname: Wicks
authors.forename: George K
authors.initials: GK
authors.lastname: Iwama
authors.forename: David J
authors.initials: DJ
authors.lastname: Randall
mesh_terms: D000641:Ammonia / Q000633:toxicity*; D000818:Animals; D001786:Blood Glucose; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D005393:Fish Diseases / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000209:etiology*; D018840:HSP70 Heat-Shock Proteins / Q000097:blood; D006854:Hydrocortisone / Q000097:blood; D009113:Muramidase / Q000097:blood; D016897:Respiratory Burst; D012307:Risk Factors; D012474:Salmon; D013997:Time Factors; D014735:Vibrio Infections / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000662:veterinary
chemical_list: D001786:Blood Glucose; D018840:HSP70 Heat-Shock Proteins; D000641:Ammonia; D009113:Muramidase; D006854:Hydrocortisone