title: Synergistic effect of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-gamma and liver X receptor-alpha in the regulation of inflammation in macrophages.
abstract: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARgamma) and liver X receptor-alpha (LXRalpha) are nuclear ligand-activated transcription factors, which regulate lipid metabolism and inflammation. Murine J774.2 macrophages were stimulated with Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (concentration, 10 microg/mL) with or without the PPARgamma ligand, 15-deoxy-Delta prostaglandin J2 (15d-PGJ2), or the LXRalpha ligands, 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol and T0901317 (concentration range, 0.01-10 micromol/L), alone or in combination. Nitric oxide (NO) metabolites and tumor necrosis factor alpha production, inducible NO synthase expression, and mitochondrial respiration were measured. When added to the cells as single agents, 15d-PGJ2, 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol, or T0901317 reduced the lipopolysaccharide-induced NO and tumor necrosis factor alpha production and the inducible NO synthase expression, and partially maintained mitochondrial respiration in a concentration-dependent manner. When added to the cells in combination at suboptimal concentrations, 15d-PGJ2 with 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol, or 15d-PGJ2 with T0901317, exerted anti-inflammatory effects similar to much higher concentrations (10,000-fold to 100,000-fold) of each ligand alone. The anti-inflammatory effects of these ligands, alone or in combination, were associated with reduction of nuclear factor-kappaB activation and with enhancement of PPARgamma DNA binding. LXRalpha expression was upregulated in response to 15d-PGJ2 and to the LXRalpha ligands when added alone or in combination. Immunoprecipitation experiments revealed that PPARgamma interacted with LXRalpha. Our data demonstrate that the PPARgamma ligand, 15d-PGJ2, and the LXRalpha ligands, 22(R)-hydroxycholesterol and T0901317, although binding to different nuclear receptors (i.e., PPARgamma and LXRalpha, respectively), affect mediator production through common cell signaling events and exert a synergistic potentiation in a combined treatment at suboptimal concentrations. Thus, our data suggest that PPARgamma and LXRalpha may interact in controlling the inflammatory response in macrophages.
authors.affiliation: Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Division of Critical Care Medicine, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA.
authors.forename: Giovanna
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Piraino
authors.forename: James A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Cook
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: O'Connor
authors.forename: Paul W
authors.initials: PW
authors.lastname: Hake
authors.forename: Timothy J
authors.initials: TJ
authors.lastname: Burroughs
authors.forename: Diana
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Teti
authors.forename: Basilia
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Zingarelli
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000893:Anti-Inflammatory Agents / Q000494:pharmacology*; D002478:Cells, Cultured; D004268:DNA-Binding Proteins / Q000187:drug effects / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism*; D004357:Drug Synergism; D006845:Hydrocarbons, Fluorinated; D006888:Hydroxycholesterols / Q000494:pharmacology; D007249:Inflammation / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000378:metabolism*; D008024:Ligands; D008070:Lipopolysaccharides; D000071518:Liver X Receptors; D008264:Macrophages / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000473:pathology; D051379:Mice; D016328:NF-kappa B / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism; D009569:Nitric Oxide / Q000378:metabolism; D052247:Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism; D057093:Orphan Nuclear Receptors; D047495:PPAR gamma / Q000187:drug effects / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism*; D015230:Prostaglandin D2 / Q000031:analogs & derivatives / Q000494:pharmacology; D018160:Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear / Q000187:drug effects / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism*; D015398:Signal Transduction; D013449:Sulfonamides / Q000494:pharmacology; D014409:Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha / Q000378:metabolism; D005466:Fluorocarbons; D000096926:Benzenesulfonamides
chemical_list: D000893:Anti-Inflammatory Agents; D004268:DNA-Binding Proteins; D006845:Hydrocarbons, Fluorinated; D006888:Hydroxycholesterols; D008024:Ligands; D008070:Lipopolysaccharides; D000071518:Liver X Receptors; D016328:NF-kappa B; D009569:Nitric Oxide; D052247:Nitric Oxide Synthase Type II; D057093:Orphan Nuclear Receptors; D047495:PPAR gamma; D015230:Prostaglandin D2; D018160:Receptors, Cytoplasmic and Nuclear; D013449:Sulfonamides; D014409:Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha; C477819:15-deoxyprostaglandin J2; C000605214:Nr1h3 protein, mouse; C423915:T0901317; D005466:Fluorocarbons; D000096926:Benzenesulfonamides; C003585:22-hydroxycholesterol