title: Psychological effects of ketamine in healthy volunteers. Phenomenological study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The psychosis-inducing effect of ketamine is important evidence supporting the glutamate hypothesis of schizophrenia. However, the symptoms the drug produces have not been described systematically.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To examine the effects of ketamine in healthy people using a structured psychiatric interview.
  
  
  METHODS
  Ketamine (200 ng/ml) or placebo was administered by continuous infusion to 15 healthy volunteers. Symptoms were rated using the Present State Examination, the Thought, Language and Communication Scale and the Scale for Assessment of Negative Symptoms.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Ketamine induced a range of perceptual distortions, but not hallucinations. Referential ideas were seen in nearly half the sample. There were only mild and infrequent ratings on the thought disorder scale. Affective flattening and alogia were seen in some volunteers.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Ketamine does not reproduce the full picture of schizophrenia. The main point of similarity concerns referential thinking. Phenomena resembling negative symptoms are also seen, but the distinction of these from the drug's sedative effects requires further elucidation.
authors.affiliation: Benito Menni CASM, Barcelona, Spain.
authors.forename: E
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Pomarol-Clotet
authors.forename: G D
authors.initials: GD
authors.lastname: Honey
authors.forename: G K
authors.initials: GK
authors.lastname: Murray
authors.forename: P R
authors.initials: PR
authors.lastname: Corlett
authors.forename: A R
authors.initials: AR
authors.lastname: Absalom
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Lee
authors.forename: P J
authors.initials: PJ
authors.lastname: McKenna
authors.forename: E T
authors.initials: ET
authors.lastname: Bullmore
authors.forename: P C
authors.initials: PC
authors.lastname: Fletcher
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D010054:Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale; D002490:Central Nervous System / Q000187:drug effects; D003072:Cognition Disorders / Q000139:chemically induced; D003702:Delusions / Q000139:chemically induced; D018691:Excitatory Amino Acid Antagonists / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000097:blood; D005260:Female; D006212:Hallucinations / Q000139:chemically induced; D006801:Humans; D007263:Infusions, Parenteral; D007406:Interview, Psychological; D007649:Ketamine / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000097:blood; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D019964:Mood Disorders / Q000139:chemically induced; D010468:Perceptual Disorders / Q000150:complications; D011605:Psychoses, Substance-Induced / Q000209:etiology*
chemical_list: D018691:Excitatory Amino Acid Antagonists; D007649:Ketamine