A cross-cultural survey of residents' perceived barriers in questioning/challenging authority.
OBJECTIVE
To identify perceived barriers to residents' questioning or challenging their seniors, to determine how these barriers affect decisions, and to assess how these barriers differ across cultures.


METHODS
A written questionnaire was administered to residents in teaching hospitals in the US and Japan to assess factors affecting residents' willingness to question or challenge their superiors. The responses were analyzed for statistical significance of differences between the two cultures and to determine the importance of issues affecting decisions.


RESULTS
Questionnaires were completed by 175 US and 65 Japanese residents, with an overall response rate of 71%. Trainees from both countries believe that questioning and challenging contribute to safety. The perceived importance of specific beliefs about the workplace differed across cultures in seven out of 22 questions. Residents' decisions to make a challenge were related to the relationships and perceived response of the superiors. There was no statistical difference between the US and Japanese residents in terms of the threshold for challenging their seniors.


CONCLUSIONS
We have identified attributes of residents' beliefs of communication, including several cross-cultural differences in the importance of values and issues affecting one's decision to question or challenge. In contrast, there was no difference in the threshold for challenging seniors by the Japanese and US residents studied. Changes in organizational and professional culture may be as important, if not more so, than national culture to encourage "speaking up". Residents should be encouraged to overcome barriers to challenging, and training programs should foster improved relationships and communication between trainers and trainees.
Kobayashi
H
H
Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA. hajime2004@post.harvard.edu
Pian-Smith
M
M
Sato
M
M
Sawa
R
R
Takeshita
T
T
Raemer
D
D
D001291:Attitude of Health Personnel / Q000208:ethnology*; D001318:Authoritarianism; D003431:Cross-Cultural Comparison; D003657:Decision Making; D005260:Female; D006608:Hierarchy, Social; D006801:Humans; D033183:Interdisciplinary Communication; D007388:Internal Medicine / Q000193:education*; D007396:Internship and Residency; D007564:Japan; D008297:Male; D017751:Safety Management; D012945:Social Values / Q000208:ethnology; D012962:Sociology, Medical; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D014481:United States