title: Risk of limb deficiency defects associated with NAT1, NAT2, GSTT1, GSTM1, and NOS3 genetic variants, maternal smoking, and vitamin supplement intake.
abstract: Increasing epidemiologic evidence suggests that genetic susceptibilities contribute to birth defects risks, especially in combination with other environmental exposures. This analysis examines the association of risk of limb deficiency defects with infant genotypes for N-acetyltranferases (NAT1, NAT2), glutathione-S-tranferases (GSTT1, GSTM1), and endothelial nitric oxide synthase (NOS3). The combined effects of infant genotype with maternal smoking and supplement intake were also examined. The authors genotyped 92 cases and 201 non-malformed controls from a California population-based case-control study (1987-1988 birth cohort). Several of the infant genotypes were associated with an at least 1.5-fold increased risk for limb deficiency defects: homozygosity for the NAT1 1088 and 1095 polymorphisms, heterozygosity and homozygosity for the NOS3 A(-922)G polymorphism, and heterozygosity (but not homozygosity) for the NOS3 G894T polymorphism. The authors hypothesized that the effects of selected variant genotypes in the presence of maternal smoking, or in the absence of supplement intake, may exceed effects of any of these factors alone. A few observations suggested that risks were greatest among infants with variant genotypes, whose mothers also smoked or did not take supplements, but most did not, and risk estimates were imprecise. Further studies exploring genetic susceptibility and combined gene-environment effects with respect to limb development will be important to continued improvement of our understanding of the etiology of limb anomalies.
authors.affiliation: March of Dimes Birth Defect Foundation/California Department of Health Services, California Birth Defects Monitoring Program, Berkeley, California 94710, USA. sca@cbdmp.org
authors.forename: Suzan L
authors.initials: SL
authors.lastname: Carmichael
authors.forename: Gary M
authors.initials: GM
authors.lastname: Shaw
authors.forename: Wei
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Yang
authors.forename: David M
authors.initials: DM
authors.lastname: Iovannisci
authors.forename: Edward
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Lammer
mesh_terms: D001191:Arylamine N-Acetyltransferase / Q000235:genetics; D019587:Dietary Supplements; D014644:Genetic Variation; D005982:Glutathione Transferase / Q000235:genetics; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D007527:Isoenzymes / Q000235:genetics; D017880:Limb Deformities, Congenital / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000235:genetics*; D052250:Nitric Oxide Synthase Type III / Q000235:genetics; D012306:Risk; D012907:Smoking; D014815:Vitamins / Q000008:administration & dosage*
chemical_list: D001191:Arylamine N-Acetyltransferase; D005982:Glutathione Transferase; D007527:Isoenzymes; D052250:Nitric Oxide Synthase Type III; D014815:Vitamins; C496314:NOS3 protein, human; C089384:N-acetyltransferase 1; C478900:NAT2 protein, human; C413545:glutathione S-transferase T1