title: Triadimefon causes branchial arch malformations in Xenopus laevis embryos.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Triazole-derivatives are potent antifungal agents used as systemic agricultural fungicides and against fungal diseases in humans and domestic animals. They act by inhibiting the cytochrome P-450 conversion of lanosterol to ergosterol, thus resulting in faulty fungal cell wall synthesis. Some data have been published about the teratogenic activity of triazoles on rodent embryos: Hypoplasias, abnormal shape, agenesis of the branchial arches, for example, were reported as typical induced malformations. Unfortunately, no data are available on the embryotoxicity of these compounds in amphibians, despite the increasing concern among the scientific community about the phenomenon of global amphibian population declines. The aim of the present work is to evaluate the embryo-lethal and teratogenic potentials of Triadimefon (FON), a triazole-derivative widely used as an antimycotic in agriculture, by the test FETAX (Frog Embryos Teratogenic Assay, Xenopus) with particular attention being paid to the analysis of branchial arch malformations.
  
  
  METHODS
  Xenopus laevis embryos were exposed continuously from stage 9 to increasing concentrations of FON and analyzed at stage 47 for mortality and teratogenicity (group I) to determine the median lethal (LC50) and teratogenic (TC50) concentrations. Another two pools of larvae were exposed to FON for a 2 hour period at early gastrula (Group II) or neurula (Group III) stages to verify which period of development is the most sensitive to FON. The malformations observed were further investigated by histological section and cartilage staining with Alcian blue.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The assay has estimated LC50 and TC50 values of 63.8 microM and 2.73 microM, respectively; the resulting TI (Teratogenic Index = LC50/TC50) value of 23.4 has underlined the very high teratogenic risk associated with this compound. Neurulation was more sensitive to FON exposure than gastrulation, since the TC50 estimated values for group III (neurula exposed) specimens was 7.6 times lower than those of group II (gastrula exposed). Interestingly, for each group analyzed, 100% of malformed embryos showed alterations at branchial arch derived cartilages: Anterior cartilages were reduced, missing, fused or incorrectly positioned while gill cartilages were altered only in the most severely affected specimens. In some cases these malformations were associated with hyperpigmentation. Our results support the hypothesis that FON can interfere with Neural Crest Cell (NCC) migration, since craniofacial components and melanophores are derived from neural crest material.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  In conclusion, our data show Triadimefon to be a potent teratogen able to induce specific craniofacial malformation in Xenopus laevis embryos, probably interfering with the NCC migration into the branchial mesenchyme. These results are also interesting for ecotoxicological reasons as FON, as well as other pesticides, are likely to be present in water systems near agricultural or urban areas which may serve as habitats for developing amphibians and fishes.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our results are in agreement with the data obtained on in vitro cultured rat embryos suggesting that the FON mechanism of action involves strongly conserved molecules. The choice of Xenopus laevis as the model organism allows us to extend the toxicological and teratological observations to a molecular level, in order to search for novel genes regulated by FON exposure.
authors.affiliation: Dipartimento di Biotecnologie e Scienze Molecolari, Università dell'Insubria, Varese, Italy.
authors.forename: Elena
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Papis
authors.forename: Giovanni
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Bernardini
authors.forename: Rosalba
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Gornati
authors.forename: Mariangela
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Prati
mesh_terms: D000014:Abnormalities, Drug-Induced; D000818:Animals; D001934:Branchial Region / Q000002:abnormalities* / Q000187:drug effects; D019465:Craniofacial Abnormalities / Q000139:chemically induced; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D047109:Fetal Development / Q000187:drug effects; D005659:Fungicides, Industrial / Q000633:toxicity*; D007928:Lethal Dose 50; D023421:Models, Animal; D013723:Teratogens / Q000633:toxicity*; D014230:Triazoles / Q000633:toxicity*; D014982:Xenopus laevis / Q000002:abnormalities* / Q000196:embryology
chemical_list: D005659:Fungicides, Industrial; D013723:Teratogens; D014230:Triazoles; C032910:triadimefon