title: Nitric oxide delivery by ultrasonic cracking: some limitations.
abstract: Nitric oxide (NO) has been implicated in smooth muscle relaxation. Its use has been widespread in cardiology. Due to the effective scavenging of NO by hemoglobin, however, the drug has to be applied locally or in large quantities, to have the effect desired. We propose the use of encapsulated microbubbles that act as a vehicle to carry the gas to a region of interest. By applying a burst of high-amplitude ultrasound, the shell encapsulating the gas can be cracked. Consequently, the gas is released upon which its dissolution and diffusion begins. This process is generally referred to as (ultra)sonic cracking. To test if the quantities of released gas are high enough to allow for NO-delivery in small vessels (ø<200 microm), we analyzed high-speed optical recordings of insonified stiff-shelled microbubbles. These microbubbles were subjected to ultrasonic cracking using 0.5 or 1.7 MHz ultrasound with mechanical index MI>0.6. The mean quantity released from a single microbubble is 1.7 fmol. This is already more than the NO production of a 1mm long vessel with a 50 microm diameter during 100 ms. However, we simulated that the dissolution time of typical released NO microbubbles is equal to the half-life time of NO in whole blood due to scavenging by hemoglobin (1.8 ms), but much smaller than the extravascular half-life time of NO (>90 ms). We conclude that ultrasonic cracking can only be a successful means for nitric oxide delivery, if the gas is released in or near the red blood cell-free plasma next to the endothelium. A complicating factor in the in vivo situation is the variation in blood pressure. Although our simulations and acoustic measurements demonstrate that the dissolution speed of free gas increases with the hydrostatic pressure, the in vitro acoustic amplitudes suggest that the number of released microbubbles decreases at higher hydrostatic pressures. This indicates that ultrasonic cracking mostly occurs during the expansion phase.
authors.affiliation: Institute for Medical Engineering, Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Building IC, 6/146, D-44780 Bochum, Germany. michiel.postema@ruhr-uni-bochum.de <michiel.postema@ruhr-uni-bochum.de>
authors.forename: Michiel
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Postema
authors.forename: Ayache
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Bouakaz
authors.forename: Folkert J
authors.initials: FJ
authors.lastname: ten Cate
authors.forename: Georg
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Schmitz
authors.forename: Nico
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: de Jong
authors.forename: Annemieke
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: van Wamel
mesh_terms: D002214:Capsules / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000528:radiation effects*; D004058:Diffusion; D004307:Dose-Response Relationship, Radiation; D004337:Drug Carriers / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000528:radiation effects; D008422:Materials Testing; D045423:Microbubbles; D009569:Nitric Oxide / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000737:chemistry*; D014677:Pharmaceutical Vehicles / Q000737:chemistry / Q000528:radiation effects; D015612:Phonophoresis / Q000379:methods*; D011829:Radiation Dosage
chemical_list: D002214:Capsules; D004337:Drug Carriers; D014677:Pharmaceutical Vehicles; D009569:Nitric Oxide