title: Kinase-dependent, retinoic acid receptor-independent up-regulation of cyclooxygenase-2 by all-trans retinoic acid in human mesangial cells.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Preliminary results in human mesangial cells (MC) suggested that all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) increased the expression of COX-2 and the production of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), a PG with anti-inflammatory effects in MC. The aim of this work is to confirm that ATRA increases the expression of COX-2 in MC and to examine the mechanisms involved.
  
  
  METHODS
  Cultured MC were treated with ATRA. COX expression and kinase activity were analyzed by Western blot. Transcriptional mechanisms were analyzed by Northern blot, RT-PCR and promoter assays.
  
  
  RESULTS
  COX-2 and COX-1 expression and PGE2 production were increased by ATRA. COX-2 played a role in PGE2 production as production was only partially inhibited by COX-1 inhibitor SC-560. COX-2 up-regulation by ATRA was due to transcriptional mechanisms as pre-incubation with actinomycin D abolished it and ATRA increased the expression of COX-2 mRNA and the activity of a human COX-2 promoter construct, whereas post-transcriptional mechanisms were not found. Retinoic acid receptors (RAR) were not involved in the up-regulation of COX-2 by ATRA since it was not inhibited by RAR-pan-antagonists and the RAR-pan-agonist TTNPB did not up-regulate COX-2. Instead ATRA might act through a sustained activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) since up-regulation of COX-2 was prevented by inhibition of the activation of ERK1/2 with PD098059. Also ERK1/2, as well as downstream signalling proteins from ERK1/2, remained phosphorylated when COX-2 increased 24 h later.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These results highlight the relevance of RAR-independent mechanisms to the biological effects of ATRA.
authors.affiliation: Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Alcala, Alcala de Henares, Madrid, Spain.
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Alique
authors.forename: V
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Moreno
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Kitamura
authors.forename: Q
authors.initials: Q
authors.lastname: Xu
authors.forename: F J
authors.initials: FJ
authors.lastname: Lucio-Cazana
mesh_terms: D002478:Cells, Cultured; D051546:Cyclooxygenase 2 / Q000096:biosynthesis / Q000235:genetics*; D015232:Dinoprostone / Q000096:biosynthesis; D006801:Humans; D050527:Mesangial Cells / Q000201:enzymology*; D010770:Phosphotransferases / Q000502:physiology*; D018168:Receptors, Retinoic Acid / Q000502:physiology; D014212:Tretinoin / Q000502:physiology*; D015854:Up-Regulation / Q000502:physiology*
chemical_list: D018168:Receptors, Retinoic Acid; D014212:Tretinoin; D051546:Cyclooxygenase 2; D010770:Phosphotransferases; D015232:Dinoprostone