title: Smoke exposure and ethanol ingestion modulate intrapulmonary polymorphonuclear leukocyte killing, but not recruitment or phagocytosis.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  People who smoke and abuse alcohol are uniquely susceptible to pulmonary infections caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, the pneumococcus. The primary cellular defense against pneumococci within the lungs is the polymorphonuclear leukocyte (PMN). Cigarette smoke and ethanol (EtOH) are known to alter certain PMN functions, but little is known about their concurrent effects.
  
  
  METHODS
  Male Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed twice daily for 8 weeks to cigarette smoke (smoke-exposed) or room air (sham-exposed). During the final week of exposure, the rats were pair-fed a liquid diet containing either 36 or 0% EtOH calories. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes were prerecruited into the rats' lungs by transtracheal injection of lipopolysaccharide. Five hours later, the rats were infected transtracheally with S. pneumoniae, and PMN recruitment, phagocytosis, and bactericidal activity were quantified within their lungs. Chemokine levels were also measured in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids, lung homogenates, and sera.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Neither PMN recruitment nor phagocytic uptake of pneumococci was altered by EtOH ingestion or smoke exposure. Killing of the organisms, however, was significantly decreased in sham-exposed, but not smoke-exposed, rats ingesting EtOH. Parallel results were determined for serum cytokine-induced neutrophil chemoattractant-1 (CINC-1), with EtOH ingestion significantly decreasing the levels in sham-exposed, but not smoke-exposed, rats. Pulmonary levels of macrophage inflammatory protein-2 (MIP-2) and CINC-1 were highly elevated by the combination of EtOH and smoke.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  One week of EtOH ingestion by rats impaired the ability of their PMNs to kill S. pneumoniae within their lungs. This was not due to decreased recruitment of the PMNs to the lungs or to diminished phagocytosis of intrapulmonary pneumococci. The addition of twice-daily cigarette smoke exposure to this short-term EtOH ingestion model restored PMN bactericidal ability to levels observed in the absence of either treatment. These EtOH-induced and smoke-induced alterations in PMN killing may be related to alterations in both pulmonary and systemic inflammatory chemokine levels.
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Creighton University School of Medicine, Omaha, Nebraska, USA.
authors.forename: Elizabeth A
authors.initials: EA
authors.lastname: Vander Top
authors.forename: Greg A
authors.initials: GA
authors.lastname: Perry
authors.forename: Mary U
authors.initials: MU
authors.lastname: Snitily
authors.forename: Martha J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Gentry-Nielsen
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002492:Central Nervous System Depressants / Q000097:blood / Q000494:pharmacology*; D054360:Chemokine CXCL1; D054426:Chemokine CXCL2; D018925:Chemokines / Q000378:metabolism; D019743:Chemokines, CXC / Q000378:metabolism; D003114:Colony-Forming Units Assay; D000431:Ethanol / Q000097:blood / Q000494:pharmacology*; D005434:Flow Cytometry; D008168:Lung / Q000276:immunology* / Q000378:metabolism / Q000382:microbiology; D008297:Male; D015846:Monokines / Q000378:metabolism; D009504:Neutrophils / Q000276:immunology*; D010587:Phagocytosis / Q000187:drug effects*; D011018:Pneumonia, Pneumococcal / Q000276:immunology / Q000382:microbiology; D051381:Rats; D017207:Rats, Sprague-Dawley; D012907:Smoking / Q000276:immunology*; D013296:Streptococcus pneumoniae / Q000276:immunology
chemical_list: D002492:Central Nervous System Depressants; D054360:Chemokine CXCL1; D054426:Chemokine CXCL2; D018925:Chemokines; D019743:Chemokines, CXC; C513297:Cxcl1 protein, rat; C513296:Cxcl2 protein, rat; D015846:Monokines; D000431:Ethanol