title: Cytokines in breast cancer.
abstract: In recent decades many advances have occurred in the understanding of the role of cytokines in breast cancer. New signalling pathways of interleukin (IL)-1 family, IL-6, IL-11, IL-18, interferons (IFNs) and interferon regulatory factors 1 (IRF-1) and 2 (IRF-2) have been found within tumour microenvironments and in metastatic sites. Some cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, IL-11, TGFbeta) stimulate while others (IL-12, IL-18, IFNs) inhibit breast cancer proliferation and/or invasion. Similarly, high circulating levels of some cytokines seem to be favourable (soluble IL-2R) while others are unfavourable (IL-1beta, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-18, gp130) prognostic indicators. So far IL-2, IFNalpha, IFNbeta and occasionally IFNgamma, IL-6, IL-12 have been the cytokines used for anti tumour treatment of advanced breast cancer either to induce or increase hormone sensitivity and/or to stimulate cellular immunity. Disappointing results occurred in most trials; however, two long-term pilot studies suggest that IL-2 and IFNbeta, when used appropriately can have a positive effect on clinical benefit and overall survival of patients with minimal residual disease after chemotherapy or with disseminated disease controlled by conventional endocrine therapy.
authors.affiliation: Department of Internal Medicine, University of Pisa, Via Roma 67, 56126 Pisa, Italy. a.nicolini@int.med.unipi.it
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Nicolini
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Carpi
authors.forename: G
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Rossi
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000970:Antineoplastic Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000971:Antineoplastic Combined Chemotherapy Protocols; D001943:Breast Neoplasms / Q000276:immunology / Q000503:physiopathology*; D002986:Clinical Trials as Topic; D016207:Cytokines / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007111:Immunity, Cellular; D007372:Interferons / Q000502:physiology / Q000627:therapeutic use; D007378:Interleukins / Q000502:physiology / Q000627:therapeutic use; D011379:Prognosis; D053773:Transforming Growth Factor beta1
chemical_list: D000970:Antineoplastic Agents; D016207:Cytokines; D007378:Interleukins; D053773:Transforming Growth Factor beta1; D007372:Interferons