Psychological responses to the sniper attacks: Washington DC area, October 2002.
BACKGROUND
This study assessed the psychological and behavioral responses of residents of the Washington DC metropolitan area to the October 2002 sniper shootings, as well as the association between measures of exposure to the shootings and elevated traumatic stress symptoms.


METHODS
Random-digit-dial telephone survey of 1205 adults living in Washington DC and two surrounding counties during the shootings, conducted May 2003. Main outcome measures included self-reports regarding traumatic stress symptoms, perceptions of safety, behavioral responses, and exposures to incidents.


RESULTS
Forty-five percent of residents reported going to public spaces such as parks and shopping centers less than usual, and 5.5% reported missing at least 1 day of work because of the sniper attacks. Women who reported living within 5 miles of any shooting incident were significantly more likely to report elevated traumatic stress symptoms-consistent with a probable diagnosis of post-traumatic stress disorder-than women who reported living farther from incidents (odds ratio = 4.2, 95% confidence interval = 1.9-9.3). Among men, there was no significant association between reported residential proximity and elevated traumatic stress symptoms.


CONCLUSIONS
These results suggest the substantial behavioral and psychological impact that traumatic events such as these sniper shootings can have on communities. They support the importance of clinicians and community leaders addressing psychological functioning in the setting of such events that threaten a population. The results further suggest that women who report residing closest to such incidents are at greatest risk for experiencing elevated symptoms of traumatic stress, and perhaps warrant special attention.
Schulden
Jeffrey
J
National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30333, USA. jschulden@cdc.gov
Chen
Jieru
J
Kresnow
Marcie-jo
MJ
Arias
Ileana
I
Crosby
Alexander
A
Mercy
James
J
Simon
Thomas
T
Thomas
Peter
P
Davies-Cole
John
J
Blythe
David
D
D000041:Absenteeism; D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D001294:Attitude to Health; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D004219:District of Columbia; D005239:Fear; D005260:Female; D005389:Firearms; D006306:Health Surveys; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008396:Maryland; D008875:Middle Aged; D012449:Safety; D012919:Social Behavior; D012931:Social Environment; D012940:Social Problems / Q000523:psychology*; D013313:Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000523:psychology*; D014505:Urban Population; D014948:Wounds, Gunshot / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000523:psychology*