title: Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection in systemic lupus erythematosus and the antiphospholipid syndrome.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The Strongyloides stercoralis hyperinfection syndrome (SHS) may develop in individuals with asymptomatic infection receiving immunosuppressive treatment. This report summarizes current knowledge regarding SHS in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and associated antiphospholipid syndrome (APS).
  
  
  METHODS
  Two patients with active SLE and associated APS presenting with SHS are reported. Additional cases of strongyloidiasis in SLE were identified and reviewed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Patient 1: A 34-year-old woman with SLE and APS characterized by active glomerulonephritis, stroke, and several hospital-acquired infections presented with vomiting and diffuse abdominal pain. Intestinal vasculitis was suspected, and treatment with methylprednisolone and cyclophosphamide was given. Response was partial. A gastric biopsy revealed S. stercoralis larvae. She received ivermectin and eventually recovered. Patient 2: A 37-year-old man with active glomerulonephritis and APS with recurrent thrombosis presented with digital necrosis. Necrotizing vasculitis was suspected and treated with immunosupressants. He suddenly developed respiratory failure secondary to alveolar hemorrhage and bronchoalveolar lavage was performed. The patient developed Gram-negative septic shock and died. The postmortem result of bronchoalveolar lavage yielded Strongyloides larvae. Nine cases of strongyloidiasis and the SHS in SLE patients reported in the literature were identified and reviewed. Five of these patients died; none had associated APS.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These cases suggest that the SHS can exacerbate SLE and APS, predisposing to Gram-negative sepsis and death. Immunocompromised patients need an early diagnosis and specific treatment of parasitic diseases and their complications. The SHS should be considered in the differential diagnosis of lupus complications in patients from endemic areas.
authors.affiliation: Department of Systemic Diseases, Service of Rheumatology, Edgardo Rebagliati Martins Hospital, Lima, Peru. esly89@yahoo.com
authors.forename: Claudia S
authors.initials: CS
authors.lastname: Mora
authors.forename: María I
authors.initials: MI
authors.lastname: Segami
authors.forename: José A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Hidalgo
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000818:Animals; D016736:Antiphospholipid Syndrome / Q000150:complications*; D001992:Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid / Q000382:microbiology; D003937:Diagnosis, Differential; D004359:Drug Therapy, Combination; D017809:Fatal Outcome; D005260:Female; D006090:Gram-Negative Bacteria; D016905:Gram-Negative Bacterial Infections / Q000150:complications / Q000175:diagnosis; D006801:Humans; D008180:Lupus Erythematosus, Systemic / Q000150:complications*; D008297:Male; D018805:Sepsis / Q000150:complications / Q000175:diagnosis; D013270:Stomach / Q000382:microbiology / Q000473:pathology; D017171:Strongyloides stercoralis / Q000302:isolation & purification; D013322:Strongyloidiasis / Q000150:complications / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000188:drug therapy