title: Ontogeny of androgen receptor and disruption of its mRNA expression by exogenous estrogens during morphogenesis of the genital tubercle.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The ontogeny of androgen receptor expression in male and female mouse genital tubercles, and the effects of in utero ethinyl estradiol exposure on androgen receptor mRNA expression in the hypospadias model were studied.
  
  
  METHODS
  Androgen receptor mRNA expression was measured in mouse genital tubercles from fetuses and pups collected on gestational days 12, 14, 16 and 18, and from newborns using immunohistochemistry and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Pregnant dams were exposed to ethinyl estradiol or corn oil as controls from gestational days 12 to 17. Genital tubercles of gestational day 19 fetuses were then examined by further quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis after identification of the seam area using a dissecting microscope to diagnose hypospadias in males.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Androgen receptor protein was detected in genital tubercles by gestational day 14. Androgen receptor mRNA expression increased gradually in each sex during normal development. However, female genital tubercles expressed a higher level of androgen receptor mRNA throughout development compared to male genital tubercles (p <0.0001). In utero ethinyl estradiol exposure led to a 5.4 and 4.5-fold increase in androgen receptor mRNA in the genital tubercles of female and male embryos (p = 0.004 and 0.001, respectively). Hypospadiac male genital tubercles showed increased androgen receptor mRNA expression compared to control males (p = 0.006). Levels in hypospadiac males did not differ from those in control females but they were less than those in ethinyl estradiol treated females (p >0.05 and 0.01, respectively).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Androgen receptor protein is expressed abundantly in male and female genital tubercles. Androgen receptor mRNA levels are higher in female than in male genital tubercles through development and they increase in response to in utero ethinyl estradiol exposure with ethinyl estradiol treated females having the highest levels of expression, followed by ethinyl estradiol treated hypospadiac males. We infer that higher estrogen in genital tubercles results in a physiological response of increased androgen receptor mRNA expression. We found no direct association between changes in androgen receptor mRNA expression and the presence or absence of hypospadias in males, suggesting that alterations in the expression of proteins other than or in addition to androgen receptor result in anomalous urethral development. This finding supports the idea that the etiology of hypospadias is multifactorial in origin.
authors.affiliation: Institute for the Study and Treatment of Hypospadias, Department of Urology, UCSF Children's Medical Center, University of California-San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA. kagras@yahoo.co.uk
authors.forename: Koray
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Agras
authors.forename: Emily
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Willingham
authors.forename: Benchun
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Liu
authors.forename: Laurence S
authors.initials: LS
authors.lastname: Baskin
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D004967:Estrogens / Q000494:pharmacology*; D004997:Ethinyl Estradiol / Q000494:pharmacology*; D005260:Female; D005333:Fetus / Q000187:drug effects; D005836:Genitalia, Female / Q000196:embryology* / Q000378:metabolism; D005837:Genitalia, Male / Q000196:embryology* / Q000378:metabolism; D005865:Gestational Age; D007021:Hypospadias / Q000196:embryology / Q000378:metabolism; D007150:Immunohistochemistry; D008297:Male; D051379:Mice; D009024:Morphogenesis; D012333:RNA, Messenger / Q000378:metabolism*; D011944:Receptors, Androgen / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism*; D020133:Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
chemical_list: C410798:AR protein, human; D004967:Estrogens; D012333:RNA, Messenger; D011944:Receptors, Androgen; D004997:Ethinyl Estradiol