Eight Americas: investigating mortality disparities across races, counties, and race-counties in the United States.
BACKGROUND
The gap between the highest and lowest life expectancies for race-county combinations in the United States is over 35 y. We divided the race-county combinations of the US population into eight distinct groups, referred to as the "eight Americas," to explore the causes of the disparities that can inform specific public health intervention policies and programs.


RESULTS
The eight Americas were defined based on race, location of the county of residence, population density, race-specific county-level per capita income, and cumulative homicide rate. Data sources for population and mortality figures were the Bureau of the Census and the National Center for Health Statistics. We estimated life expectancy, the risk of mortality from specific diseases, health insurance, and health-care utilization for the eight Americas. The life expectancy gap between the 3.4 million high-risk urban black males and the 5.6 million Asian females was 20.7 y in 2001. Within the sexes, the life expectancy gap between the best-off and the worst-off groups was 15.4 y for males (Asians versus high-risk urban blacks) and 12.8 y for females (Asians versus low-income southern rural blacks). Mortality disparities among the eight Americas were largest for young (15-44 y) and middle-aged (45-59 y) adults, especially for men. The disparities were caused primarily by a number of chronic diseases and injuries with well-established risk factors. Between 1982 and 2001, the ordering of life expectancy among the eight Americas and the absolute difference between the advantaged and disadvantaged groups remained largely unchanged. Self-reported health plan coverage was lowest for western Native Americans and low-income southern rural blacks. Crude self-reported health-care utilization, however, was slightly higher for the more disadvantaged populations.


CONCLUSIONS
Disparities in mortality across the eight Americas, each consisting of millions or tens of millions of Americans, are enormous by all international standards. The observed disparities in life expectancy cannot be explained by race, income, or basic health-care access and utilization alone. Because policies aimed at reducing fundamental socioeconomic inequalities are currently practically absent in the US, health disparities will have to be at least partly addressed through public health strategies that reduce risk factors for chronic diseases and injuries.
Murray
Christopher J L
CJ
Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America.
Kulkarni
Sandeep C
SC
Michaud
Catherine
C
Tomijima
Niels
N
Bulzacchelli
Maria T
MT
Iandiorio
Terrell J
TJ
Ezzati
Majid
M
D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000367:Age Factors; D003695:Delivery of Health Care / Q000639:trends; D005260:Female; D005843:Geography / Q000639:trends; D006297:Health Services Accessibility / Q000639:trends; D006801:Humans; D008017:Life Expectancy / Q000639:trends; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009026:Mortality / Q000639:trends; D010342:Patient Acceptance of Health Care; D044469:Racial Groups; D012307:Risk Factors; D012737:Sex Factors; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology