title: Pushing up daisies: implicit and explicit language in oncologist-patient communication about death.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Although there are guidelines regarding how conversations with patients about prognosis in life-limiting illness should occur, there are little data about what doctors actually say. This study was designed to qualitatively analyze the language that oncologists and cancer patients use when talking about death.
  
  
  METHODS
  We recruited 29 adults who had incurable forms of cancer, were scheduled for a first-time visit with one of six oncologists affiliated with a teaching hospital in Australia, and consented to having their visit audiotaped and transcribed. Using content analytic techniques, we coded various features of language usage.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Of the 29 visits, 23 (79.3%) included prognostic utterances about treatment-related and disease-related outcomes. In 12 (52.2%) of these 23 visits, explicit language about death ("terminal," variations of "death") was used. It was most commonly used by the oncologist after the physical examination, but it was sometimes used by patients or their kin, usually before the examination and involving emotional questioning about the patient's future. In all 23 (100%) visits, implicit language (euphemistic or indirect talk) was used in discussing death and focused on an anticipated life span (mentioned in 87.0% of visits), estimated time frame (69.6%), or projected survival (47.8%).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Instead of using the word "death," most participants used some alternative phrase, including implicit language. Although oncologists are more likely than patients and their kin to use explicit language in discussing death, the oncologists tend to couple it with implicit language, possibly to mitigate the message effects.
authors.affiliation: Center for Health Equity Research and Promotion, VA Pittsburgh Healthcare System (151C-U), Rm 1A115, Bldg 28, Pittsburgh, PA 15240-1000, USA. keri.rodriguez@med.va.gov
authors.forename: Keri L
authors.initials: KL
authors.lastname: Rodriguez
authors.forename: Frank J
authors.initials: FJ
authors.lastname: Gambino
authors.forename: Phyllis
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Butow
authors.forename: Rebecca
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Hagerty
authors.forename: Robert M
authors.initials: RM
authors.lastname: Arnold
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D001293:Attitude to Death; D001315:Australia; D005260:Female; D006784:Hospitals, Teaching; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008495:Medical Oncology / Q000379:methods*; D008875:Middle Aged; D009369:Neoplasms / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000523:psychology*; D010817:Physician-Patient Relations; D011379:Prognosis; D036301:Qualitative Research; D013637:Tape Recording; D019452:Terminally Ill / Q000523:psychology*; D013997:Time Factors; D014342:Truth Disclosure