title: Gene-environment interactions in the development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Genetic factors influence the variable development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in response to smoking and are likely to vary between populations. Recent studies have begun to shed some light on these gene-environment interactions.
  
  
  RESULTS
  A variety of approaches has been used to identify novel susceptibility genes for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. These studies have provided evidence for the possible role of many inflammatory mediators and their receptors, proteases, antiproteases, and antioxidant and xenobiotic genes in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease pathophysiology. However, ethnic differences and subtle phenotype differences often make replication of these studies difficult.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The completion of the Human Genome Project, the HapMap project, technological advances in single-nucleotide-polymorphism genotyping and the potential of genome-wide association analysis will allow the identification of susceptibility genes for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The challenge is to understand the influence of multiple genetic factors and multiple environmental factors as well as gene-gene and gene-environment interactions. Careful clinical characterization of phenotypes for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is essential and this will include comparison of biomarkers of distinct pathologies including radiological assessment to separate the components of pulmonary emphysema and small-airway disease.
authors.affiliation: Centro di Ricerca su Asma e BPCO, Università di Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy.
authors.forename: Gaetano
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Caramori
authors.forename: Ian
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Adcock
mesh_terms: D004198:Disease Susceptibility; D004777:Environment; D005796:Genes; D006801:Humans; D029424:Pulmonary Disease, Chronic Obstructive / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology*; D012307:Risk Factors