Hypoxia-induced pulmonary vascular remodeling: cellular and molecular mechanisms.
Chronic hypoxic exposure induces changes in the structure of pulmonary arteries, as well as in the biochemical and functional phenotypes of each of the vascular cell types, from the hilum of the lung to the most peripheral vessels in the alveolar wall. The magnitude and the specific profile of the changes depend on the species, sex, and the developmental stage at which the exposure to hypoxia occurred. Further, hypoxia-induced changes are site specific, such that the remodeling process in the large vessels differs from that in the smallest vessels. The cellular and molecular mechanisms vary and depend on the cellular composition of vessels at particular sites along the longitudinal axis of the pulmonary vasculature, as well as on local environmental factors. Each of the resident vascular cell types (ie, endothelial, smooth muscle, adventitial fibroblast) undergo site- and time-dependent alterations in proliferation, matrix protein production, expression of growth factors, cytokines, and receptors, and each resident cell type plays a specific role in the overall remodeling response. In addition, hypoxic exposure induces an inflammatory response within the vessel wall, and the recruited circulating progenitor cells contribute significantly to the structural remodeling and persistent vasoconstriction of the pulmonary circulation. The possibility exists that the lung or lung vessels also contain resident progenitor cells that participate in the remodeling process. Thus the hypoxia-induced remodeling of the pulmonary circulation is a highly complex process where numerous interactive events must be taken into account as we search for newer, more effective therapeutic interventions. This review provides perspectives on each of the aforementioned areas.
Stenmark
Kurt R
KR
Department of Pediatrics, Developmental Lung Biology Laboratory, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver, CO 80262, USA. Kurt.Stenmark@UCHSC.edu
Fagan
Karen A
KA
Frid
Maria G
MG
D000818:Animals; D001808:Blood Vessels / Q000378:metabolism / Q000473:pathology / Q000503:physiopathology; D002908:Chronic Disease; D042783:Endothelial Cells; D005347:Fibroblasts; D006801:Humans; D006976:Hypertension, Pulmonary / Q000209:etiology / Q000503:physiopathology; D000860:Hypoxia / Q000150:complications / Q000503:physiopathology*; D007249:Inflammation / Q000209:etiology; D008168:Lung / Q000098:blood supply*; D010641:Phenotype; D013234:Stem Cells / Q000473:pathology