Recent advances in opioid pharmacology.
Despite their many and sometimes life-threatening side-effects, opioids in general and morphine in particular are valuable and potent painkillers. This article describes recent developments in sex-related differences in opioid (morphine) pharmacodynamics, morphine metabolites, the nociceptin/orphanin FQ receptor system, acute opioid tolerance and opioid-induced side-effects, such as opioid-induced respiratory depression and itch, and P-glycoprotein modulation of opioid effect.
Dahan
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Department of Anesthesiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, the Netherlands. anes.research.unit@worldmail.nl
Kest
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