title: Analysis of amorphous and nanocrystalline solids from their X-ray diffraction patterns.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The purpose of this paper is to provide a physical description of the amorphous state for pharmaceutical materials and to investigate the pharmaceutical implications. Techniques to elucidate structural differences in pharmaceutical solids exhibiting characteristic X-ray amorphous powder patterns are also presented.
  
  
  METHODS
  The X-ray amorphous powder diffraction patterns of microcrystalline cellulose, indomethacin, and piroxicam were measured with laboratory XRPD instrumentation. Analysis of the data were carried out using a combination of direct methods, such as pair distribution functions (PDF), and indirect material modeling techniques including Rietveld, total scattering, and amorphous packing.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The observation of X-ray amorphous powder patterns may indicate the presence of amorphous, glassy or disordered nanocrystalline material in the sample. Rietveld modeling of microcrystalline cellulose (Avicel PH102) indicates that it is predominantly disordered crystalline cellulose Form Ibeta with some amorphous contribution. The average crystallite size of the disordered nanocrystalline cellulose was determined to be 10.9 nm. Total scattering modeling of ground samples of alpha, gamma, and delta crystal forms of indomethacin in combination with analysis of the PDFs provided a quantitative picture of the local structure during various stages of grinding. For all three polymorphs, with increased grinding time, a two-phase system, consisting of amorphous and crystalline material, continually transformed to a completely random close packed (RCP) amorphous structure. The same pattern of transformation was detected for the Form I polymorph of piroxicam. However, grinding of Form II of piroxicam initially produced a disordered phase that maintained the local packing of Form II but over a very short nanometer length scale. The initial disordered phase is consistent with continuous random network (CRN) glass material. This initial disordered phase was maintained to a critical point when a transition to a completely amorphous RCP structure occurred.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Treating X-ray amorphous powder patterns with different solid-state models, ranging from disordered nanocrystalline to glassy and amorphous, resulted in the assignment of structures in each of the systems examined. The pharmaceutical implications with respect to the stability of the solid are discussed.
authors.affiliation: SSCI, Inc, 3065 Kent Ave, West Lafayette, Indiana 47906, USA.
authors.forename: Simon
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Bates
authors.forename: George
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Zografi
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Engers
authors.forename: Kenneth
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Morris
authors.forename: Kieran
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Crowley
authors.forename: Ann
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Newman
mesh_terms: D002482:Cellulose; D002626:Chemistry, Pharmaceutical; D003460:Crystallization; D004339:Drug Compounding; D004355:Drug Stability; D005079:Excipients; D008027:Light; D008956:Models, Chemical; D004364:Pharmaceutical Preparations / Q000737:chemistry*; D010894:Piroxicam / Q000737:chemistry; D012542:Scattering, Radiation; D014961:X-Ray Diffraction
chemical_list: D005079:Excipients; D004364:Pharmaceutical Preparations; D010894:Piroxicam; D002482:Cellulose; C109691:microcrystalline cellulose