title: Heavy smoking and liver.
abstract: Smoking causes a variety of adverse effects on organs that have no direct contact with the smoke itself such as the liver. It induces three major adverse effects on the liver: direct or indirect toxic effects, immunological effects and oncogenic effects. Smoking yields chemical substances with cytotoxic potential which increase necro-inflammation and fibrosis. In addition, smoking increases the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1, IL-6 and TNF- alpha) that would be involved in liver cell injury. It contributes to the development of secondary polycythemia and in turn to increased red cell mass and turnover which might be a contributing factor to secondary iron overload disease promoting oxidative stress of hepatocytes. Increased red cell mass and turnover are associated with increased purine catabolism which promotes excessive production of uric acid. Smoking affects both cell-mediated and humoral immune responses by blocking lymphocyte proliferation and inducing apoptosis of lymphocytes. Smoking also increases serum and hepatic iron which induce oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation that lead to activation of stellate cells and development of fibrosis. Smoking yields chemicals with oncogenic potential that increase the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in patients with viral hepatitis and are independent of viral infection as well. Tobacco smoking has been associated with suppression of p53 (tumour suppressor gene). In addition, smoking causes suppression of T-cell responses and is associated with decreased surveillance for tumour cells. Moreover, it has been reported that heavy smoking affects the sustained virological response to interferon (IFN) therapy in hepatitis C patients which can be improved by repeated phlebotomy. Smoker's syndrome is a clinico-pathological condition where patients complain of episodes of facial flushing, warmth of the palms and soles of feet, throbbing headache, fullness in the head, dizziness, lethargy, prickling sensation, pruritus and arthralgia.
authors.affiliation: Hepatology and Gastroenterology, Ain Shams University and Director of Cairo Liver Center. 5, El-Gergawy St. Dokki, Giza, Egypt. clcz@tedata.net.eg
authors.forename: Abdel-Rahman
authors.initials: AR
authors.lastname: El-Zayadi
mesh_terms: D019698:Hepatitis C, Chronic / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000473:pathology; D006801:Humans; D007372:Interferons / Q000627:therapeutic use; D008099:Liver / Q000473:pathology*; D009385:Neoplastic Processes; D011086:Polycythemia / Q000209:etiology; D012906:Smoke / Q000032:analysis; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000276:immunology; D014026:Nicotiana
chemical_list: D012906:Smoke; D007372:Interferons