title: Re-interpreting conventional interval estimates taking into account bias and extra-variation.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The study design with the smallest bias for causal inference is a perfect randomized clinical trial. Since this design is often not feasible in epidemiologic studies, an important challenge is to model bias properly and take random and systematic variation properly into account. A value for a target parameter might be said to be "incompatible" with the data (under the model used) if the parameter's confidence interval excludes it. However, this "incompatibility" may be due to bias and/or extra-variation.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We propose the following way of re-interpreting conventional results. Given a specified focal value for a target parameter (typically the null value, but possibly a non-null value like that representing a twofold risk), the difference between the focal value and the nearest boundary of the confidence interval for the parameter is calculated. This represents the maximum correction of the interval boundary, for bias and extra-variation, that would still leave the focal value outside the interval, so that the focal value remained "incompatible" with the data. We describe a short example application concerning a meta analysis of air versus pure oxygen resuscitation treatment in newborn infants. Some general guidelines are provided for how to assess the probability that the appropriate correction for a particular study would be greater than this maximum (e.g. using knowledge of the general effects of bias and extra-variation from published bias-adjusted results).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Although this approach does not yet provide a method, because the latter probability can not be objectively assessed, this paper aims to stimulate the re-interpretation of conventional confidence intervals, and more and better studies of the effects of different biases.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Dresden University of Technology, Dresden, Germany. hoefler@psychologie.tu-dresden.de
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Höfler
authors.forename: Shaun R
authors.initials: SR
authors.lastname: Seaman
mesh_terms: D015982:Bias; D016001:Confidence Intervals; D003627:Data Interpretation, Statistical; D006801:Humans; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D015931:Intensive Care, Neonatal / Q000379:methods; D009010:Monte Carlo Method; D016017:Odds Ratio; D016032:Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012107:Research Design; D012151:Resuscitation / Q000379:methods