title: F+ RNA coliphage typing for microbial source tracking in surface waters.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The utility of coliphages to detect and track faecal pollution was evaluated using South Carolina surface waters that exceeded State faecal coliform standards.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Coliphages were isolated from 117 surface water samples by single agar layer (SAL) and enrichment presence/absence (EP/A) methods. Confirmed F+ RNA coliphages were typed for microbial source tracking using a library-independent approach. Concentrations of somatic coliphages using 37 and 44.5 degrees C incubation temperatures were found to be significantly different and the higher temperature may be more specific for faecal contamination. The EP/A technique detected coliphages infecting Escherichia coli Famp in 38 (66%) of the 58 surface water samples negative for F+ coliphages by the SAL method. However, coliphages isolated by EP/A were found to be less representative of coliphage diversity within a sample. Among the 2939 coliphage isolates tested from surface water and known source samples, 813 (28%) were found to be F+ RNA. The majority (94%) of surface water F+ RNA coliphage isolates typed as group I. Group II and/or III viruses were identified from 14 surface water stations, the majority of which were downstream of wastewater discharges. These sites were likely contaminated by human-source faecal pollution.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The results suggest that faecal contamination in surface waters can be detected and source identifications aided by coliphage analyses.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This study supports the premise that coliphage typing can provide useful, but not absolute, information to distinguish human from animal sources of faecal pollution. Furthermore, the comparison of coliphage isolation methods detailed in this study should provide valuable information to those wishing to incorporate coliphage detection into water quality assessments.
authors.affiliation: NOAA, Center for Coastal Environmental Health and Biomolecular Research, Charleston, SC, USA. jill.pullaro@noaa.gov
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Stewart-Pullaro
authors.forename: J W
authors.initials: JW
authors.lastname: Daugomah
authors.forename: D E
authors.initials: DE
authors.lastname: Chestnut
authors.forename: D A
authors.initials: DA
authors.lastname: Graves
authors.forename: M D
authors.initials: MD
authors.lastname: Sobsey
authors.forename: G I
authors.initials: GI
authors.lastname: Scott
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D003090:Coliphages / Q000145:classification* / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification; D004784:Environmental Monitoring / Q000379:methods; D005243:Feces / Q000821:virology*; D006801:Humans; D012367:RNA, Viral / Q000032:analysis; D013696:Temperature; D014871:Water Microbiology
chemical_list: D012367:RNA, Viral