title: Evolution of glyoxylate cycle enzymes in Metazoa: evidence of multiple horizontal transfer events and pseudogene formation.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The glyoxylate cycle is thought to be present in bacteria, protists, plants, fungi, and nematodes, but not in other Metazoa. However, activity of the glyoxylate cycle enzymes, malate synthase (MS) and isocitrate lyase (ICL), in animal tissues has been reported. In order to clarify the status of the MS and ICL genes in animals and get an insight into their evolution, we undertook a comparative-genomic study.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Using sequence similarity searches, we identified MS genes in arthropods, echinoderms, and vertebrates, including platypus and opossum, but not in the numerous sequenced genomes of placental mammals. The regions of the placental mammals' genomes expected to code for malate synthase, as determined by comparison of the gene orders in vertebrate genomes, show clear similarity to the opossum MS sequence but contain stop codons, indicating that the MS gene became a pseudogene in placental mammals. By contrast, the ICL gene is undetectable in animals other than the nematodes that possess a bifunctional, fused ICL-MS gene. Examination of phylogenetic trees of MS and ICL suggests multiple horizontal gene transfer events that probably went in both directions between several bacterial and eukaryotic lineages. The strongest evidence was obtained for the acquisition of the bifunctional ICL-MS gene from an as yet unknown bacterial source with the corresponding operonic organization by the common ancestor of the nematodes.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The distribution of the MS and ICL genes in animals suggests that either they encode alternative enzymes of the glyoxylate cycle that are not orthologous to the known MS and ICL or the animal MS acquired a new function that remains to be characterized. Regardless of the ultimate solution to this conundrum, the genes for the glyoxylate cycle enzymes present a remarkable variety of evolutionary events including unusual horizontal gene transfer from bacteria to animals.
authors.affiliation: Section on Ecology, Behavior and Evolution, Division of Biological Sciences, University of California at San Diego, 2218 Muir Biology Building, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA. fkondrashov@ucsd.edu
authors.forename: Fyodor A
authors.initials: FA
authors.lastname: Kondrashov
authors.forename: Eugene V
authors.initials: EV
authors.lastname: Koonin
authors.forename: Igor G
authors.initials: IG
authors.lastname: Morgunov
authors.forename: Tatiana V
authors.initials: TV
authors.lastname: Finogenova
authors.forename: Marie N
authors.initials: MN
authors.lastname: Kondrashova