title: Behavioral responses of bison and elk in Yellowstone to snowmobiles and snow coaches.
abstract: Managers of public lands are charged with protecting some of our most important natural resources and ecosystems, while providing for their use and enjoyment by visitors. Almost one million visitors entered Yellowstone National Park by motorized means on snowmobiles (87%) or snow coaches (13%) during 1992-2003. Most vehicles toured the central portion of the park where bison (Bison bison) and elk (Cervus elaphus) concentrate in geothermal areas. We sampled >6500 interactions between groups of these species and groups of snowmobiles and snow coaches (collectively, OSV, over-snow vehicles) during five winters (1999-2000, 2002-2004). Multinomial logits models were used to identify conditions leading to behavioral responses. Elk responded three times as often (52%) as bison (19%) during interactions with groups of snowmobiles and snow coaches due to increased vigilance responses (elk, 44%; bison, 10%). However, the frequency of higher-intensity movement responses by bison and elk were similar (6-7% travel, 1-2% flight, <1% defense) and relatively low compared to other studies of ungulates and snowmobile disturbance. The likelihood of active responses by bison and elk increased significantly if animals were on or near roads, groups were smaller, or humans approached. The likelihood of an active response by bison decreased within winters having the largest visitation, suggesting some habituation to snowmobiles and snow coaches. There was no evidence that snowmobile use during the past 35 years affected the population dynamics or demography of bison or elk. Thus, we suggest that regulations restricting levels and travel routes of over-snow vehicles (OSVs) were effective at reducing disturbances to bison and elk below a level that would cause measurable fitness effects. We recommend park managers consider maintaining OSV traffic levels at or below those observed during our study. Regardless, differing interpretations of the behavioral and physiological response data will continue to exist because of the diverse values and beliefs of the many constituencies of Yellowstone.
authors.affiliation: Department of Mathematical Sciences, Montana State University, Bozeman 59717, USA. jobo@math.montana.edu
authors.forename: John J
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: Borkowski
authors.forename: P J
authors.initials: PJ
authors.lastname: White
authors.forename: Robert A
authors.initials: RA
authors.lastname: Garrott
authors.forename: Troy
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Davis
authors.forename: Amanda R
authors.initials: AR
authors.lastname: Hardy
authors.forename: Daniel J
authors.initials: DJ
authors.lastname: Reinhart
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001522:Behavior, Animal / Q000502:physiology*; D016164:Bison / Q000502:physiology*; D003670:Deer / Q000502:physiology*; D008954:Models, Biological; D009009:Montana; D015541:Off-Road Motor Vehicles; D012621:Seasons