title: Implications of gender differences for human health risk assessment and toxicology.
abstract: This paper from The Human Health working group of SGOMSEC 16 examines a broad range of issues on gender effects in toxicology. Gender differences in toxicology begin at the gamete and embryo stage, continuing through development and maturation and into old age. Sex influences exposure, toxicokinetics, and toxicodynamics. The effects of sex have often been overlooked in both epidemiology and toxicology. In addition to the obvious modifying effects of the sex hormones and conditions affecting the male and female reproductive organs and sex roles, both genetic and hormonal effects influence many aspects of life and toxic responses. All aspects of toxicology should consider gender-balanced designs so that a more comprehensive understanding of differences and similarities can be obtained. Differential gene expression is a new frontier in toxicology. Risk assessment should account for gender and life cycle differences. The biological basis for altered sex ratios observed in several populations should be sought in animal models, and expanded to other compounds that might exert sex-selective effects. Wherever possible and feasible, toxicologic and environmental epidemiological studies should be designed and have sufficient statistical power to quantify differential gender-based exposures and outcomes.
authors.affiliation: Division of Metals and Health, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Box 210, SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden. Marie.vahter@imm.ki.se
authors.forename: Marie
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Vahter
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Gochfeld
authors.forename: Barbara
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Casati
authors.forename: Mona
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Thiruchelvam
authors.forename: Agneta
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Falk-Filippson
authors.forename: Robert
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Kavlock
authors.forename: Erminio
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Marafante
authors.forename: Deborah
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Cory-Slechta
mesh_terms: D001842:Bone and Bones / Q000187:drug effects; D002319:Cardiovascular System / Q000187:drug effects; D002490:Central Nervous System / Q000187:drug effects; D004781:Environmental Exposure; D004812:Epidemiologic Methods; D005260:Female; D005786:Gene Expression Regulation / Q000187:drug effects*; D015386:Hazardous Substances / Q000633:toxicity*; D006304:Health Status; D006801:Humans; D007668:Kidney / Q000187:drug effects; D008297:Male; D010599:Pharmacokinetics; D012098:Reproduction / Q000187:drug effects; D018570:Risk Assessment; D012727:Sex Characteristics; D014116:Toxicology / Q000379:methods
chemical_list: D015386:Hazardous Substances