title: The structure of the cushions in the feet of African elephants (Loxodonta africana).
abstract: The uniquely designed limbs of the African elephant, Loxodonta africana, support the weight of the largest terrestrial animal. Besides other morphological peculiarities, the feet are equipped with large subcutaneous cushions which play an important role in distributing forces during weight bearing and in storing or absorbing mechanical forces. Although the cushions have been discussed in the literature and captive elephants, in particular, are frequently affected by foot disorders, precise morphological data are sparse. The cushions in the feet of African elephants were examined by means of standard anatomical and histological techniques, computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In both the forelimb and the hindlimb a 6th ray, the prepollex or prehallux, is present. These cartilaginous rods support the metacarpal or metatarsal compartment of the cushions. None of the rays touches the ground directly. The cushions consist of sheets or strands of fibrous connective tissue forming larger metacarpal/metatarsal and digital compartments and smaller chambers which were filled with adipose tissue. The compartments are situated between tarsal, metatarsal, metacarpal bones, proximal phalanges or other structures of the locomotor apparatus covering the bones palmarly/plantarly and the thick sole skin. Within the cushions, collagen, reticulin and elastic fibres are found. In the main parts, vascular supply is good and numerous nerves course within the entire cushion. Vater-Pacinian corpuscles are embedded within the collagenous tissue of the cushions and within the dermis. Meissner corpuscles are found in the dermal papillae of the foot skin. The micromorphology of elephant feet cushions resembles that of digital cushions in cattle or of the foot pads in humans but not that of digital cushions in horses. Besides their important mechanical properties, foot cushions in elephants seem to be very sensitive structures.
authors.affiliation: Anatomy, Department of Pathobiology, Veterinary University of Vienna, Austria. gerald.weissengruber@vu-wien.ac.at
authors.forename: G E
authors.initials: GE
authors.lastname: Weissengruber
authors.forename: G F
authors.initials: GF
authors.lastname: Egger
authors.forename: J R
authors.initials: JR
authors.lastname: Hutchinson
authors.forename: H B
authors.initials: HB
authors.lastname: Groenewald
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Elsässer
authors.forename: D
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Famini
authors.forename: G
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Forstenpointner
mesh_terms: D000273:Adipose Tissue / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D000818:Animals; D003238:Connective Tissue / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D004606:Elephants / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D005528:Foot; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging; D050279:Metacarpal Bones / Q000033:anatomy & histology; D008682:Metatarsal Bones / Q000033:anatomy & histology; D013639:Tarsal Bones / Q000033:anatomy & histology; D014057:Tomography, X-Ray Computed; D016474:Weight-Bearing