title: Genotoxic and carcinogenic risk to humans of drug-nitrite interaction products.
abstract: The large majority of N-nitroso compounds (NOC) have been found to produce genotoxic effects and to cause tumor development in laboratory animals; four NOC have been classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as probably and another 15 as possibly carcinogenic to humans. A considerable fraction of drugs are theoretically nitrosatable due to the presence of amine, amide or other groups which by reacting with nitrite in the gastric environment, or even in other sites, can give rise to the formation of NOC, and in some cases other reactive species. This review provides a synthesis of information on the chemistry of NOC formation, the carcinogenic activity of NOC in animals and humans and the inhibitors of nitrosation reactions. It contains information on the drugs which have been tested for the formation of NOC by reaction with nitrite and the genotoxic-carcinogenic effects of their nitrosation products. In an extensive search we have found that 182 drugs, representing a wide variety of chemical structures and therapeutic activities, were examined in various experimental conditions for their ability to react with nitrite, and 173 (95%) of them were found to form NOC or other reactive species. Moreover, 136 drugs were examined in short-term genotoxicity tests and/or in long-term carcinogenesis assays, either in combination with nitrite or using their nitrosation product, in order to establish whether they produce genotoxic and carcinogenic effects; 112 (82.4%) of them have been found to give at least one positive response. The problem of endogenous drug nitrosation is largely unrecognized. Only a small fraction of theoretically nitrosatable drugs have been examined for the possible formation of genotoxic-carcinogenic NOC, guidelines for genotoxicity testing of pharmaceuticals do not indicate the need of performing the appropriate tests, and patients are not informed that the drug-nitrite interaction and the consequent risk can be reduced to a large extent by consuming the nitrosatable drug with ascorbic acid.
authors.affiliation: Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Genoa, Viale Benedetto XV, 2, I-16132 Genoa, Italy. Electronic address: Antonietta.Martelli@unige.it.
authors.forename: Giovanni
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Brambilla
authors.affiliation: Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Genoa, Viale Benedetto XV, 2, I-16132 Genoa, Italy.
authors.forename: Antonietta
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Martelli
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002273:Carcinogens / Q000633:toxicity*; D004249:DNA Damage; D004347:Drug Interactions; D005753:Gastric Mucosa / Q000378:metabolism; D006801:Humans; D009153:Mutagens / Q000633:toxicity*; D009369:Neoplasms / Q000139:chemically induced*; D009573:Nitrites / Q000378:metabolism*; D015538:Nitrosation / Q000187:drug effects; D009603:Nitroso Compounds / Q000737:chemistry / Q000378:metabolism / Q000633:toxicity*
chemical_list: D002273:Carcinogens; D009153:Mutagens; D009573:Nitrites; D009603:Nitroso Compounds