Quantitative imaging of cell-permeable magnetic resonance contrast agents using x-ray fluorescence.
The inability to transduce cellular membranes is a limitation of current magnetic resonance imaging probes used in biologic and clinical settings. This constraint confines contrast agents to extracellular and vascular regions of the body, drastically reducing their viability for investigating processes and cycles in developmental biology. Conversely, a contrast agent with the ability to permeate cell membranes could be used in visualizing cell patterning, cell fate mapping, gene therapy, and, eventually, noninvasive cancer diagnosis. Therefore, we describe the synthesis and quantitative imaging of four contrast agents with the capability to cross cell membranes in sufficient quantity for detection. Each agent is based on the conjugation of a Gd(III) chelator with a cellular transduction moiety. Specifically, we coupled Gd(III)-diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid DTPA and Gd(III)-1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid with an 8-amino acid polyarginine oligomer and an amphipathic stilbene molecule, 4-amino-4'-(N,N-dimethylamino)stilbene. The imaging modality that provided the best sensitivity and spatial resolution for direct detection of the contrast agents is synchrotron radiation x-ray fluorescence (SR-XRF). Unlike optical microscopy, SR-XRF provides two-dimensional images with resolution 10(3) better than (153)Gd gamma counting, without altering the agent by organic fluorophore conjugation. The transduction efficiency of the intracellular agents was evaluated by T(1) analysis and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry to determine the efficacy of each chelate-transporter combination.
Endres
Paul J
PJ
Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA.
Macrenaris
Keith W
KW
Vogt
Stefan
S
Allen
Matthew J
MJ
Meade
Thomas J
TJ
D000818:Animals; D002460:Cell Line; D002463:Cell Membrane Permeability; D002614:Chelating Agents / Q000138:chemical synthesis / Q000737:chemistry / Q000493:pharmacokinetics; D003287:Contrast Media / Q000138:chemical synthesis / Q000737:chemistry / Q000493:pharmacokinetics; D004285:Dogs; D019786:Gadolinium DTPA / Q000138:chemical synthesis / Q000737:chemistry / Q000493:pharmacokinetics; D006571:Heterocyclic Compounds / Q000138:chemical synthesis / Q000737:chemistry / Q000493:pharmacokinetics; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging / Q000379:methods*; D051379:Mice; D041681:NIH 3T3 Cells; D009942:Organometallic Compounds / Q000138:chemical synthesis / Q000737:chemistry / Q000493:pharmacokinetics; D013052:Spectrometry, X-Ray Emission
D002614:Chelating Agents; D003287:Contrast Media; D006571:Heterocyclic Compounds; D009942:Organometallic Compounds; C050823:gadolinium 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-N,N',N'',N'''-tetraacetate; D019786:Gadolinium DTPA