title: Napoleon Bonaparte's gastric cancer: a clinicopathologic approach to staging, pathogenesis, and etiology.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Numerous hypotheses on the cause of Napoleon Bonaparte's death have been proposed, including hereditary gastric cancer, arsenic poisoning, and inappropriate medical treatment. We aimed to determine the etiology and pathogenesis of Napoleon's illness by a comparison of historical information with current clinicopathologic knowledge.
  
  
  METHODS
  Evaluation of Napoleon's clinical history, original autopsy reports, and of historical documents. The clinicopathologic data from 135 gastric cancer patients were used for comparison with the data available on Napoleon.
  
  
  METHODS
  At least T3N1M0 (stage IIIA) gastric cancer. Napoleon's tumor extended from the cardia to the pylorus (>10 cm) without infiltration of adjacent structures, which provides strong evidence for at least stage T3. The N1 stage was determined by the presence of several enlarged and hardened regional (perigastric) lymph nodes, and the M0 stage by the absence of distant metastasis. Analysis of the available historical documents indicates that Napoleon's main risk factor might have been Helicobacter pylori infection rather than a familial predisposition.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our analysis suggests that Napoleon's illness was a sporadic gastric carcinoma of advanced stage. Patients with such tumors have a notoriously poor prognosis.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Pathology, University Hospital of Basel, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Alessandro
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Lugli
authors.forename: Inti
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Zlobec
authors.forename: Gad
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Singer
authors.forename: Andrea
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Kopp Lugli
authors.forename: Luigi M
authors.initials: LM
authors.lastname: Terracciano
authors.forename: Robert M
authors.initials: RM
authors.lastname: Genta
mesh_terms: D005197:Famous Persons; D005602:France; D049672:History, 19th Century; D006801:Humans; D009367:Neoplasm Staging; D013274:Stomach Neoplasms / Q000209:etiology* / Q000266:history* / Q000473:pathology