title: Analysis of factors influencing the rate of germination of spores of Bacillus subtilis by very high pressure.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To elucidate the factors that determine the rate of germination of Bacillus subtilis spores with very high pressure (VHP) and the mechanism of VHP germination.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Spores of B. subtilis were germinated rapidly with a VHP of 500 MPa at 50 degrees C. This VHP germination did not require the spore's nutrient-germinant receptors, as found previously, and did not require diacylglycerylation of membrane proteins. However, the spore's pool of dipicolinic acid (DPA) was essential. Either of the two redundant enzymes that degrade the spore's peptidoglycan cortex, and thus allow completion of spore germination, was essential for completion of VHP germination. However, neither of these enzymes was needed for DPA release triggered by VHP treatment. Completion of spore germination as well as DPA release with VHP had an optimum temperature of approx. 60 degrees C, in contrast to an optimum temperature of 40 degrees C for germination with the moderately high pressure of 150 MPa. The rate of spore germination by VHP decreased approx. fourfold when the sporulation temperature increased from 23 degrees C to 44 degrees C, and decreased twofold when 1 mol l(-1) salt was present in sporulation. However, large variations in levels of unsaturated fatty acids in the spore's inner membranes did not affect rates of VHP germination. Complete germination of spores by VHP was not inhibited significantly by killing of spores with several oxidizing agents, and was not inhibited by ethanol, octanol or o-chlorophenol at concentrations that abolish nutrient germination. Completion of spore germination by VHP was also inhibited by Hg(2+), but this ion did not inhibit DPA release caused by VHP. In contrast, dodecylamine, a surfactant that can trigger spore germination, strongly inhibited DPA release caused by VHP treatment.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  VHP does not cause spore germination by acting upon the spore's nutrient-germinant receptors, but by directly causing DPA release. This DPA release then leads to subsequent completion of germination. VHP likely acts on the spore's inner membrane to cause DPA release, targeting either a membrane protein or the membrane itself. However, the precise identity of this target is not yet clear.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  There is significant interest in the use of VHP to eliminate or reduce levels of bacterial spores in foods. As at least partial spore germination by pressure is almost certainly essential for subsequent spore killing, knowledge of factors involved and the mechanism of VHP germination are crucial to the understanding of spore killing by VHP. This work provides new insight into factors that can affect the rate of B. subtilis spore germination by VHP, and into the mechanism of VHP germination itself.
authors.affiliation: Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 06030, USA.
authors.forename: E P
authors.initials: EP
authors.lastname: Black
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Wei
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Atluri
authors.forename: D E
authors.initials: DE
authors.lastname: Cortezzo
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Koziol-Dube
authors.forename: D G
authors.initials: DG
authors.lastname: Hoover
authors.forename: P
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Setlow
mesh_terms: D000588:Amines / Q000494:pharmacology; D001412:Bacillus subtilis / Q000187:drug effects / Q000254:growth & development*; D001426:Bacterial Proteins / Q000378:metabolism; D002733:Chlorophenols / Q000494:pharmacology; D004075:Diglycerides / Q000378:metabolism; D004791:Enzyme Inhibitors / Q000378:metabolism; D000431:Ethanol / Q000494:pharmacology; D005231:Fatty Acids, Unsaturated / Q000378:metabolism; D005434:Flow Cytometry / Q000379:methods; D008565:Membrane Proteins / Q000378:metabolism; D008628:Mercury / Q000494:pharmacology; D000442:Octanols / Q000494:pharmacology; D016877:Oxidants / Q000494:pharmacology; D010848:Picolinic Acids / Q000378:metabolism; D011312:Pressure; D012965:Sodium Chloride / Q000378:metabolism; D012997:Solvents / Q000494:pharmacology; D013171:Spores, Bacterial / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D013501:Surface-Active Agents / Q000494:pharmacology; D013696:Temperature
chemical_list: D000588:Amines; D001426:Bacterial Proteins; D002733:Chlorophenols; D004075:Diglycerides; D004791:Enzyme Inhibitors; D005231:Fatty Acids, Unsaturated; D008565:Membrane Proteins; D000442:Octanols; D016877:Oxidants; D010848:Picolinic Acids; D012997:Solvents; D013501:Surface-Active Agents; D000431:Ethanol; D012965:Sodium Chloride; D008628:Mercury; C030683:2-chlorophenol; C004860:dipicolinic acid; C003935:dodecylamine