title: Visceral leishmaniasis in southeastern Nepal: a cross-sectional survey on Leishmania donovani infection and its risk factors.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To document the frequency of Leishmania donovani infection at community level in a highly endemic region in southeastern Nepal, and to assess socioeconomic and environmental risk factors.
  
  
  METHODS
  A random cross-sectional population survey was held in two visceral leishmaniasis (VL) foci in Morang District in April to May 2003, enrolling individuals 2 years or older and residing in the endemic area for at least 12 months. Leishmania infection was defined as a direct agglutination test (DAT) titre equal to or higher than 1:3200. Risk factors were identified by logistic regression.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The direct agglutination test was positive in 7.5% (95% CI: 5.1-10.8) and the leishmanin skin test (LST) in 13.2% (95% CI: 9.9-17.2) of the 373 study participants. No case of current kala-azar was found, but 5.1 % (95% CI: 3.1-7.8) reported having suffered from VL. Independent risk factors for Leishmania infection were proximity of the house to ponds [odds ratio (OR) 3.7, 95% CI: 1.6-8.5], family size (OR 4.4, 95% CI: 1.6-12.6), age > or =15 years (OR 5.5, 95% CI: 1.2-25.0) and house constructed in mud (OR 3.0, 95% CI: 1.1-7.6). Bednets, not impregnated and in poor condition, were used by 95.2% (95% CI: 92.3-97.0) of the population, but did not show any protective effect.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This study shows that there is a serious problem of transmission of VL in this area of Nepal. The risk factors identified are linked with the socioeconomic level and the environment. The population would benefit from a community intervention to improve the environmental and housing conditions in the villages.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium. schenkelk@rki.de
authors.forename: Karl
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Schenkel
authors.forename: Suman
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Rijal
authors.forename: Siddhartha
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Koirala
authors.forename: Shekhar
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Koirala
authors.forename: Veerle
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Vanlerberghe
authors.forename: Patrick
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Van der Stuyft
authors.forename: Marina
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Gramiccia
authors.forename: Marleen
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Boelaert
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000372:Agglutination Tests / Q000379:methods; D000818:Animals; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D019353:Endemic Diseases; D005191:Family Characteristics; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007428:Intradermal Tests / Q000379:methods; D007893:Leishmania donovani; D007898:Leishmaniasis, Visceral / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000209:etiology*; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009390:Nepal / Q000453:epidemiology; D012111:Residence Characteristics; D012307:Risk Factors; D012423:Rural Health / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors