title: Histopathologic changes in oral mucosa of Yemenis addicted to water-pipe and cigarette smoking in addition to takhzeen al-qat.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Because the clinicopathologic effects of takhzeen al-qat are similar to those induced by smoking, the aim of this paper was to study the oral effect of 3 bad oral habits: takhzeen al-qat and cigarette and water-pipe smoking.
  
  
  METHODS
  This study was done on 33 Yemeni chronic qat users grouped as heavy cigarette smokers (GI), nonsmokers (GII) and water-pipe smokers (GIII). In all cases (n = 33) 2 biopsies were taken (n = 66), one from the buccal mucosa at the chewing side and the other from a similar mucosa at the contralateral (nonexposed) side. Biopsies were prepared for routine H&E staining.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Acanthosis appeared in 88% and 0%, abnormal rete ridges in 70% and 3%, hyperparakeratosis in 67% and 0%, and epithelial dysplasia in 30% and 0% of the chewing and nonchewing sides, respectively, in the 3 groups. Epithelial dysplasia appeared in 41% of GI and GIII (smokers) but in only 9% of GII (nonsmokers).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Takhzeen al-qat causes distinct histopathologic changes in the oral mucosa at the side of chewing, such as acanthosis, abnormal rete ridges, and hyperparakeratosis. The association between takhzeen al-qat and cigarette or water-pipe smoking may increase the risk of epithelial dysplasia.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biomedical Dental Sciences. Unit of Oral Pathology and Medicine, King Faisal University College of Dentistry, Dammam, Saudi Arabia. aiman-a-ali@maktoob.com <aiman-a-ali@maktoob.com>
authors.forename: Aiman A
authors.initials: AA
authors.lastname: Ali
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D029754:Catha / Q000009:adverse effects*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008548:Melanosis / Q000209:etiology / Q000473:pathology; D008875:Middle Aged; D009059:Mouth Diseases / Q000209:etiology* / Q000473:pathology; D009061:Mouth Mucosa / Q000473:pathology*; D016017:Odds Ratio; D010241:Parakeratosis / Q000209:etiology / Q000473:pathology; D012307:Risk Factors; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects*; D015006:Yemen