title: Dietary energy density is associated with obesity and the metabolic syndrome in U.S. adults.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Rising obesity rates have been linked to the consumption of energy-dense diets. We examined whether dietary energy density was associated with obesity and related disorders including insulin resistance and the metabolic syndrome.
  
  
  METHODS
  We conducted a cross-sectional study using nationally representative data of U.S. adults > or =20 years of age from the 1999-2002 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (n = 9,688). Dietary energy density was calculated based on foods only. We used a series of multivariate linear regression models to determine the independent association between dietary energy density, obesity measures (BMI [in kilograms per meters squared] and waist circumference [in centimeters]), glycemia, or insulinemia. We used multivariate Poisson regression models to determine the independent association between dietary energy density and the metabolic syndrome as defined by the National Cholesterol and Education Program (Adult Treatment Panel III).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Dietary energy density was independently and significantly associated with higher BMI in women (beta = 0.44 [95% CI 0.14-0.73]) and trended toward a significant association in men (beta = 0.37 [-0.007 to 0.74], P = 0.054). Dietary energy density was associated with higher waist circumference in women (beta = 1.11 [0.42-1.80]) and men (beta = 1.33 [0.46-2.19]). Dietary energy density was also independently associated with elevated fasting insulin (beta = 0.65 [0.18-1.12]) and the metabolic syndrome (prevalence ratio = 1.10 [95% CI 1.03-1.17]).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Dietary energy density is an independent predictor of obesity, elevated fasting insulin levels, and the metabolic syndrome in U.S. adults. Intervention studies to reduce dietary energy density are warranted.
authors.affiliation: Children's Nutrition Research Center and Academic General Pediatrics, Department of Pediatrics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030-2600, USA. jason.mendoza@bcm.edu
authors.forename: Jason A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Mendoza
authors.forename: Adam
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Drewnowski
authors.forename: Dimitri A
authors.initials: DA
authors.lastname: Christakis
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D015992:Body Mass Index; D049628:Body Size; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D004032:Diet; D004734:Energy Metabolism; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D024821:Metabolic Syndrome / Q000453:epidemiology*; D009765:Obesity / Q000453:epidemiology*; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology