title: Embryo stability and vulnerability in an always changing world.
abstract: Contrary to the view that embryos and larvae are the most fragile stages of life, development is stable under real-world conditions. Early cleavage embryos are prepared for environmental vagaries by having high levels of cellular defenses already present in the egg before fertilization. Later in development, adaptive responses to the environment either buffer stress or produce alternative developmental phenotypes. These buffers, defenses, and alternative pathways set physiological limits for development under expected conditions; teratology occurs when embryos encounter unexpected environmental changes and when stress exceeds these limits. Of concern is that rapid anthropogenic changes to the environment are beyond the range of these protective mechanisms.
authors.affiliation: Hopkins Marine Station of Stanford University, Pacific Grove, CA 93950, USA. hamdoun@stanford.edu
authors.forename: Amro
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Hamdoun
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Epel
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D004622:Embryo, Mammalian / Q000187:drug effects / Q000382:microbiology / Q000502:physiology* / Q000528:radiation effects; D004781:Environmental Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects; D006706:Homeostasis / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology* / Q000528:radiation effects; D006801:Humans