title: Aneugenic potential of the nitrogen mustard analogues melphalan, chlorambucil and p-N,N-bis(2-chloroethyl)aminophenylacetic acid in cell cultures in vitro.
abstract: Melphalan (MEL), chlorambucil (CAB) and p-N,N-bis(2-chloroethyl)aminophenylacetic acid (PHE) are nitrogen mustard analogues, which are clinically used as chemotherapeutic agents. They also exert carcinogenic activity. The aim of this study was to investigate the aneugenic potential of the above drugs and the possible mechanism responsible for this activity. The Cytokinesis Block Micronucleus (CBMN) assay in combination with fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) was used in human lymphocyte cultures to evaluate micronucleus (MN) frequency. Pancentromeric probe (alpha-satellite) was applied to identify chromosomes in micronuclei and an X-chromosome specific centromeric probe was used to asses micronucleation and non-disjunction of this chromosome in binucleated cells. The effect of the above compounds on the organization of mitotic apparatus, as a possible target of chemicals with aneugenic potential, was investigated in C(2)C(12) mouse cell line by double immunofluorescence of alpha- and gamma-tubulin. We found that the studied drugs increased MN frequency in a linear dose-dependent manner primarily by chromosome breakage and in a lesser extent by an aneugenic mechanism. Non-disjunction and micronucleation of X-chromosome were also induced. Abnormal metaphase cells were linearly increased with concentration and characterized by abnormal centrosome number. Interphase cells with micronuclei and abnormal centrosome number were also observed. Since nitrogen mustards are highly reactive agents, with low selectivity and form covalent bonds with different nucleophilic sites in proteins and nucleic acids, it is reasonable to consider that one possible pathway for nitrogen mustard analogues to exert their aneugenic activity is through reaction with nucleophilic moieties of proteins or genes that are involved in the duplication and/or separation of centrosomes, resulting in abnormal centrosome number. Based on our results the carcinogenicity of nitrogen mustard analogues studied may be attributed not only to their activity to trigger gene mutation and chromosome breakage, but also to their aneugenic potential. Further studies are warranted to clarify the above two hypotheses.
authors.affiliation: Division of Genetics, Cell and Developmental Biology, Department of Biology, University of Patras, Patras 265 00, Greece.
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Efthimiou
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Andrianopoulos
authors.forename: G
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Stephanou
authors.forename: N A
authors.initials: NA
authors.lastname: Demopoulos
authors.forename: S S
authors.initials: SS
authors.lastname: Nikolaropoulos
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D024422:Aneugens / Q000494:pharmacology*; D000782:Aneuploidy; D000818:Animals; D018906:Antineoplastic Agents, Alkylating / Q000494:pharmacology; D001378:Azasteroids / Q000494:pharmacology; D002478:Cells, Cultured / Q000187:drug effects; D002503:Centromere; D002699:Chlorambucil / Q000494:pharmacology*; D002869:Chromosome Aberrations; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D017404:In Situ Hybridization, Fluorescence; D066298:In Vitro Techniques; D008214:Lymphocytes / Q000187:drug effects*; D008297:Male; D008558:Melphalan / Q000494:pharmacology*; D051379:Mice; D048629:Micronuclei, Chromosome-Defective; D015162:Micronucleus Tests; D009630:Nondisjunction, Genetic; D010648:Phenylacetates / Q000737:chemistry / Q000494:pharmacology*
chemical_list: D024422:Aneugens; D018906:Antineoplastic Agents, Alkylating; D001378:Azasteroids; D010648:Phenylacetates; D002699:Chlorambucil; C025136:phenylacetic acid; D008558:Melphalan