title: Animals and spaceflight: from survival to understanding.
abstract: Animals have been a critical component of the spaceflight program since its inception. The Russians orbited a dog one month after the Sputnik satellite was launched. The dog mission spurred U.S. interest in animal flights. The animal missions proved that individuals aboard a spacecraft not only could survive, but also could carry out tasks during launch, near-weightlessness, and re-entry; humans were launched into space only after the early animal flights demonstrated that spaceflight was safe and survivable. After these humble beginnings when animals preceded humans in space as pioneers, a dynamic research program was begun using animals as human surrogates aboard manned and unmanned space platforms to understand how the unique environment of space alters life. In this review article, the following questions have been addressed: How did animal research in space evolve? What happened to animal development when gravity decreased? How have animal experiments in space contributed to our understanding of musculoskeletal changes and fracture repair during exposure to reduced gravity?
authors: NASA Ames Research Center, Moffet Field, CA 94035-1000, USA. eholton@mail.arc.nasa.gov
authors: E R
authors: ER
authors: Morey-Holton
authors: E L
authors: EL
authors: Hill
authors: K A
authors: KA
authors: Souza
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000830:Animals, Laboratory; D050723:Fractures, Bone / Q000473:pathology; D049673:History, 20th Century; D006801:Humans; D007814:Larva / Q000502:physiology; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000502:physiology; D009142:Musculoskeletal Physiological Phenomena; D011784:Quail; D051381:Rats; D012426:Russia; D013026:Space Flight / Q000266:history; D014481:United States; D014893:Weightlessness / Q000009:adverse effects*