title: Smoking, caffeine, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in families with Parkinson disease.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To assess associations between Parkinson disease (PD) and putatively protective factors-smoking, caffeine (coffee, tea, and soft drinks), and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen).
  
  
  METHODS
  Family-based case-control study.
  
  
  METHODS
  Academic medical center clinic.
  
  
  METHODS
  A total of 356 case subjects and 317 family controls who self-reported environmental exposures.
  
  
  METHODS
  Associations between PD and environmental measures (history, status, dosage, duration, and intensity) of smoking, coffee, caffeine, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and non-aspirin nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs were examined using generalized estimating equations with an independent correlation matrix while controlling for age and sex.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Individuals with PD were significantly less likely to report ever smoking (odds ratio = 0.56; 95% confidence interval, 0.41-0.78). Additional measures of smoking revealed significant inverse associations with PD (P<.05) and trends in odds ratios (P<.005). Increasing intensity of coffee drinking was inversely associated with PD (test for trend P = .05). Increasing dosage (trend P = .009) and intensity (trend P = .01) of total caffeine consumption were also inversely associated, with high dosage presenting a significant inverse association for PD (odds ratio = 0.58; 95% confidence interval, 0.34-0.99). There were no significant associations between nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and PD.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Inverse associations of smoking and caffeine were corroborated using families with PD, thus emphasizing smoking and caffeine as important covariates to consider in genetic studies of PD.
authors.affiliation: Center for Human Genetics and Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA.
authors.forename: Dana B
authors.initials: DB
authors.lastname: Hancock
authors.forename: Eden R
authors.initials: ER
authors.lastname: Martin
authors.forename: Jeffrey M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Stajich
authors.forename: Rita
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Jewett
authors.forename: Mark A
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Stacy
authors.forename: Burton L
authors.initials: BL
authors.lastname: Scott
authors.forename: Jeffery M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Vance
authors.forename: William K
authors.initials: WK
authors.lastname: Scott
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal / Q000009:adverse effects*; D001241:Aspirin / Q000009:adverse effects; D001628:Beverages / Q000009:adverse effects*; D002110:Caffeine; D016022:Case-Control Studies; D005192:Family Health; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007052:Ibuprofen / Q000009:adverse effects; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009288:Naproxen / Q000009:adverse effects; D016017:Odds Ratio; D010300:Parkinson Disease / Q000209:etiology* / Q000235:genetics; D012307:Risk Factors; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects*; D013662:Tea
chemical_list: D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal; D013662:Tea; D002110:Caffeine; D009288:Naproxen; D001241:Aspirin; D007052:Ibuprofen