Smoking, caffeine, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in families with Parkinson disease.
OBJECTIVE
To assess associations between Parkinson disease (PD) and putatively protective factors-smoking, caffeine (coffee, tea, and soft drinks), and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen).


METHODS
Family-based case-control study.


METHODS
Academic medical center clinic.


METHODS
A total of 356 case subjects and 317 family controls who self-reported environmental exposures.


METHODS
Associations between PD and environmental measures (history, status, dosage, duration, and intensity) of smoking, coffee, caffeine, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and non-aspirin nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs were examined using generalized estimating equations with an independent correlation matrix while controlling for age and sex.


RESULTS
Individuals with PD were significantly less likely to report ever smoking (odds ratio = 0.56; 95% confidence interval, 0.41-0.78). Additional measures of smoking revealed significant inverse associations with PD (P<.05) and trends in odds ratios (P<.005). Increasing intensity of coffee drinking was inversely associated with PD (test for trend P = .05). Increasing dosage (trend P = .009) and intensity (trend P = .01) of total caffeine consumption were also inversely associated, with high dosage presenting a significant inverse association for PD (odds ratio = 0.58; 95% confidence interval, 0.34-0.99). There were no significant associations between nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and PD.


CONCLUSIONS
Inverse associations of smoking and caffeine were corroborated using families with PD, thus emphasizing smoking and caffeine as important covariates to consider in genetic studies of PD.
Hancock
Dana B
DB
Center for Human Genetics and Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA.
Martin
Eden R
ER
Stajich
Jeffrey M
JM
Jewett
Rita
R
Stacy
Mark A
MA
Scott
Burton L
BL
Vance
Jeffery M
JM
Scott
William K
WK
D000368:Aged; D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal / Q000009:adverse effects*; D001241:Aspirin / Q000009:adverse effects; D001628:Beverages / Q000009:adverse effects*; D002110:Caffeine; D016022:Case-Control Studies; D005192:Family Health; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007052:Ibuprofen / Q000009:adverse effects; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009288:Naproxen / Q000009:adverse effects; D016017:Odds Ratio; D010300:Parkinson Disease / Q000209:etiology* / Q000235:genetics; D012307:Risk Factors; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects*; D013662:Tea
D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal; D013662:Tea; D002110:Caffeine; D009288:Naproxen; D001241:Aspirin; D007052:Ibuprofen