title: Hemospermia.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  With current diagnostic modalities the proportion of patients diagnosed with idiopathic hemospermia has decreased dramatically. The dilemma now is how far to investigate these patients since in the majority it is a benign and self-limiting symptom.
  
  
  METHODS
  We reviewed the literature on hemospermia with particular emphasis on etiology, diagnosis and management. A Medline search of the literature for the last 40 years was done and all relevant articles were studied in full.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Etiological factors are often categorized into the various pathophysiological mechanisms. Most cases of hemospermia are the result of iatrogenic, inflammatory and infective pathologies. A literature review of the etiological studies of hemospermia identified a total of 33 tumors (25 prostatic) in 931 cases (3.5%). In patients younger than 40 years an infective cause in the urogenital tract is the most common etiological factor. Often only simple, tailored investigations and appropriate treatment are required. In patients older than 40 years with persistent hemospermia or associated symptoms such as hematuria it is essential to exclude urogenital malignancy. History, examination and simple investigation should also suffice in this group. If the diagnosis is still unclear, further investigation in the form of transrectal ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging and cystoscopy is of proven benefit. Treatment for hemospermia depends on the underlying pathological condition. In most cases bleeding is slight and self-limited, and it may be managed expectantly.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The majority of patients can be treated with minimal investigations and simple reassurance. In older patients or those with persistent hemospermia or associated symptoms modern diagnostic techniques are of proven benefit.
authors: Department of Urology, Ayr Hospital, Ayr, Scotland, United Kingdom. imranahmad@doctors.net.uk
authors: Imran
authors: I
authors: Ahmad
authors: Nalagatla Sarath
authors: NS
authors: Krishna
mesh_terms: D000367:Age Factors; D003558:Cystoscopy; D003937:Diagnosis, Differential; D019160:Endosonography; D051516:Hemospermia / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology; D006801:Humans; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging; D008297:Male; D015995:Prevalence; D011379:Prognosis