title: The role of virtual reality in surgical training in otorhinolaryngology.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  This article reviews the rationale, current status and future directions for the development and implementation of virtual reality surgical simulators as training tools.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The complexity of modern surgical techniques, which utilize advanced technology, presents a dilemma for surgical training. Hands-on patient experience - the traditional apprenticeship method for teaching operations - may not apply because of the learning curve for skill acquisition and patient safety expectation. The paranasal sinuses and temporal bone have intricate anatomy with a significant amount of vital structures either within the surgical field or in close proximity. The current standard of surgical care in these areas involves the use of endoscopes, cameras and microscopes, requiring additional hand-eye coordination, an accurate command of fine motor skills, and a thorough knowledge of the anatomy under magnified vision. A surgeon's disorientation or loss of perspective can lead to complications, often catastrophic and occasionally lethal. These considerations define the ideal environment for surgical simulation; not surprisingly, significant research and validation of simulators in these areas have occurred.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Virtual reality simulators are demonstrating validity as training and skills assessment tools. Future prototypes will find application for routine use in teaching, surgical planning and the development of new instruments and computer-assisted devices.
authors.affiliation: Department of Otorhinolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Montefiore Medical Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10467, USA. mfried@montefiore.org
authors.forename: Marvin P
authors.initials: MP
authors.lastname: Fried
authors.forename: José I
authors.initials: JI
authors.lastname: Uribe
authors.forename: Babak
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Sadoughi
mesh_terms: D003198:Computer Simulation; D003194:Computer-Assisted Instruction; D006801:Humans; D007396:Internship and Residency; D008954:Models, Biological; D010036:Otolaryngology / Q000193:education; D013517:Otorhinolaryngologic Surgical Procedures / Q000193:education*; D025321:Surgery, Computer-Assisted / Q000639:trends