title: Noninvasive optical detection of bone mineral.
abstract: FRFP binds to mineral at osteoblastic, osteoclastic, and quiescent surfaces, with accumulation likely modulated by vascular delivery. In vivo visualization and quantification of binding can be accomplished noninvasively in animal models through optical tomographic imaging.
  
  
  BACKGROUND
  The development of near-infrared optical markers as reporters of bone metabolism will be useful for early diagnosis of disease. Bisphosphonates bind differentially to osteoblastic and osteoclastic surfaces depending on choice of side-chain and dose, and fluorescently tagged bisphosphonates provide a convenient way to visualize these sites. This study examines the ability of a fluorescently labeled pamidronate imaging probe to bind to regions of bone formation and resorption in vivo.
  
  
  METHODS
  In vitro binding of a far-red fluorescent pamidronate (FRFP) to mineral was assessed using intact and demineralized dentine slices. In vivo, FRFP binding was studied in three models: developing neonatal mouse, bone healing after injury, and metastasis-induced osteolysis and fracture. 3D fluorescence molecular tomographic (FMT) imaging was used to visualize signal deep within the body.
  
  
  RESULTS
  FRFP binding to bone depends on the quantity of mineral present and can be liberated from the bone during decalcification. In vivo, FRFP binds to surfaces of actively forming bone, as assessed by alkaline phosphatase staining, surfaces undergoing active resorption, as noted by scalloped bone border and presence of osteoclasts, and to quiescent surfaces not involved in formation or resorption. Binding is likely modulated by vascular delivery of the imaging agent to the exposed mineral surface and total quantity of surface exposed. FMT imaging is capable of visualizing regions of bone formation because of a large volume of labeled surface, but like radiolabeled bone scans, cannot discriminate pure osteolysis caused by metastasis.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  FRFP may function as a local biomarker of bisphosphonate deposition to assess interplay between drug and cellular environment or may be combined with other imaging agents or fluorescent cells for the noninvasive assessment of local bone metabolism in vivo.
authors.affiliation: Center for Molecular Imaging Research, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
authors.forename: Kenneth M
authors.initials: KM
authors.lastname: Kozloff
authors.forename: Ralph
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Weissleder
authors.forename: Umar
authors.initials: U
authors.lastname: Mahmood
mesh_terms: D000375:Aging / Q000502:physiology; D000818:Animals; D000831:Animals, Newborn; D015519:Bone Density / Q000502:physiology*; D001859:Bone Neoplasms / Q000473:pathology / Q000556:secondary; D045744:Cell Line, Tumor; D017102:Fracture Healing; D050723:Fractures, Bone / Q000473:pathology; D006801:Humans; D021621:Imaging, Three-Dimensional / Q000379:methods*; D051379:Mice; D009368:Neoplasm Transplantation; D014054:Tomography / Q000379:methods*