title: Multiple sclerosis: the environment and causation.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  We review current thinking on the aetiology of multiple sclerosis, how genetic susceptibility interacts with environmental risk factors at the population level, multiple sclerosis-associated risk factors and contemporary causation theory.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Two large genomic studies have confirmed the unambiguous associations with the DRB1 and DQB alleles of the human leucocyte antigen class II region. No other region with genome-wide significance has been identified. Family-based genetic epidemiological approaches have found no evidence of nongenetic transmissibility. This indicates that the action of the environment in influencing multiple sclerosis risk is operative at a macroenvironmental or population level, and not within families or the microenvironment. Environmental factors receiving renewed attention include vitamin D status, Epstein-Barr virus infection and smoking. Bradford Hill's criteria for causation have been modified and should be adopted as a framework for demonstrating causation in relationship to multiple sclerosis.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Multiple sclerosis is a complex disease because of interaction between genes and the environment. Any theory of causation for a specific agent will have to be congruent with the biology of the disease.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Cell and Molecular Science, Queen Mary University London, London, UK. g.giovannoni@qmul.ac.uk
authors.forename: Gavin
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Giovannoni
authors.forename: George
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Ebers
mesh_terms: D015984:Causality; D018562:Disease Transmission, Infectious; D004781:Environmental Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects*; D020031:Epstein-Barr Virus Infections / Q000150:complications; D020022:Genetic Predisposition to Disease / Q000235:genetics*; D006680:HLA Antigens / Q000235:genetics / Q000276:immunology; D006801:Humans; D009103:Multiple Sclerosis / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000235:genetics* / Q000276:immunology; D012307:Risk Factors; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects; D014808:Vitamin D Deficiency / Q000150:complications
chemical_list: D006680:HLA Antigens