title: 3D ultrasound in robotic surgery: performance evaluation with stereo displays.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The recent advent of real-time 3D ultrasound (3DUS) imaging enables a variety of new surgical procedures. These procedures are hampered by the difficulty of manipulating tissue guided by the distorted, low-resolution 3DUS images. To lessen the effects of these limitations, we investigated stereo displays and surgical robots for 3DUS-guided procedures.
  
  
  METHODS
  By integrating real-time stereo rendering of 3DUS with the binocular display of a surgical robot, we compared stereo-displayed 3DUS with normally displayed 3DUS. To test the efficacy of stereo-displayed 3DUS, eight surgeons and eight non-surgeons performed in vitro tasks with the surgical robot.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Error rates dropped by 50% with a stereo display. In addition, subjects completed tasks faster with the stereo-displayed 3DUS as compared to normal-displayed 3DUS. A 28% decrease in task time was seen across all subjects.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The results highlight the importance of using a stereo display. By reducing errors and increasing speed, it is an important enhancement to 3DUS-guided robotics procedures.
authors.affiliation: Division of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
authors.forename: Paul M
authors.initials: PM
authors.lastname: Novotny
authors.forename: Stephen K
authors.initials: SK
authors.lastname: Jacobsen
authors.forename: Nikolay V
authors.initials: NV
authors.lastname: Vasilyev
authors.forename: Daniel T
authors.initials: DT
authors.lastname: Kettler
authors.forename: Ivan S
authors.initials: IS
authors.lastname: Salgo
authors.forename: Pierre E
authors.initials: PE
authors.lastname: Dupont
authors.forename: Pedro J
authors.initials: PJ
authors.lastname: Del Nido
authors.forename: Robert D
authors.initials: RD
authors.lastname: Howe
mesh_terms: D003626:Data Display; D006801:Humans; D021621:Imaging, Three-Dimensional / Q000379:methods*; D011361:Professional Competence; D012371:Robotics / Q000379:methods*; D025321:Surgery, Computer-Assisted / Q000379:methods*; D013647:Task Performance and Analysis; D018084:Ultrasonography, Interventional / Q000379:methods*; D014584:User-Computer Interface