title: Prenatal exposure to maternal depression and cortisol influences infant temperament.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Accumulating evidence indicates that prenatal maternal and fetal processes can have a lasting influence on infant and child development. Results from animal models indicate that prenatal exposure to maternal stress and stress hormones has lasting consequences for development of the offspring. Few prospective studies of human pregnancy have examined the consequences of prenatal exposure to stress and stress hormones.
  
  
  METHODS
  In this study the effects of prenatal maternal psychosocial (anxiety, depression, and perceived stress) and endocrine (cortisol) indicators of stress on infant temperament were examined in a sample of 247 full-term infants. Maternal salivary cortisol and psychological state were evaluated at 18-20, 24-26, and 30-32 weeks of gestation and at 2 months postpartum. Infant temperament was assessed with a measure of negative reactivity (the fear subscale of the Infant Temperament Questionnaire) at 2 months of age.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Elevated maternal cortisol at 30-32 weeks of gestation, but not earlier in pregnancy, was significantly associated with greater maternal report of infant negative reactivity. Prenatal maternal anxiety and depression additionally predicted infant temperament. The associations between maternal cortisol and maternal depression remained after controlling for postnatal maternal psychological state.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These data suggest that prenatal exposure to maternal stress has consequences for the development of infant temperament.
authors.affiliation: Drs. Davis, Glynn, Chicz-Demet, and Sandman are with the Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine; Dr. Dunkel Schetter is with the Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles; and Dr. Hobel is with Maternal Fetal Medicine at Cedars Sinai. Electronic address: edavis@uci.edu.
authors.forename: Elysia Poggi
authors.initials: EP
authors.lastname: Davis
authors.affiliation: Drs. Davis, Glynn, Chicz-Demet, and Sandman are with the Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine; Dr. Dunkel Schetter is with the Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles; and Dr. Hobel is with Maternal Fetal Medicine at Cedars Sinai.
authors.forename: Laura M
authors.initials: LM
authors.lastname: Glynn
authors.affiliation: Drs. Davis, Glynn, Chicz-Demet, and Sandman are with the Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine; Dr. Dunkel Schetter is with the Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles; and Dr. Hobel is with Maternal Fetal Medicine at Cedars Sinai.
authors.forename: Christine Dunkel
authors.initials: CD
authors.lastname: Schetter
authors.affiliation: Drs. Davis, Glynn, Chicz-Demet, and Sandman are with the Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine; Dr. Dunkel Schetter is with the Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles; and Dr. Hobel is with Maternal Fetal Medicine at Cedars Sinai.
authors.forename: Calvin
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Hobel
authors.affiliation: Drs. Davis, Glynn, Chicz-Demet, and Sandman are with the Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine; Dr. Dunkel Schetter is with the Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles; and Dr. Hobel is with Maternal Fetal Medicine at Cedars Sinai.
authors.forename: Aleksandra
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Chicz-Demet
authors.affiliation: Drs. Davis, Glynn, Chicz-Demet, and Sandman are with the Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine; Dr. Dunkel Schetter is with the Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles; and Dr. Hobel is with Maternal Fetal Medicine at Cedars Sinai.
authors.forename: Curt A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Sandman
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D003866:Depressive Disorder / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000523:psychology; D005260:Female; D047109:Fetal Development; D006801:Humans; D006854:Hydrocortisone / Q000378:metabolism*; D007223:Infant; D018730:Infant Behavior / Q000502:physiology*; D011247:Pregnancy; D011248:Pregnancy Complications / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000523:psychology; D011297:Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects / Q000523:psychology*; D011446:Prospective Studies; D013315:Stress, Psychological / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000523:psychology; D013694:Temperament / Q000502:physiology*
chemical_list: D006854:Hydrocortisone