title: How flexible is phenotypic plasticity? Developmental windows for trait induction and reversal.
abstract: Inducible defenses allow prey to modulate their phenotypic responses to the level of predation risk in the environment and reduce the cost of constitutive defenses. Inherent in this statement is that prey must alter their phenotypes during development in order to form these defenses. This has lead many ecologists and evolutionary biologists to call for studies that examine developmental plasticity to provide insights into the importance of development in controlling the trajectories of trait formation, the integration of phenotypes over ontogeny, and the establishment of developmental windows for trait formation and reversal. By moving away from studies that focus on a single point in development, we can obtain a more complete understanding of the phenotypic decisions and limitations of prey. We exposed freshwater snails (Helisoma trivolvis) to environments in which predatory water bugs (Belostoma flumineum) were always absent, always present, or added and removed at different points in development. We discovered that snails formed morphological defenses against water bugs. Importantly, after the initial induction of defenses, snails showed similar developmental trajectories as snails reared without predators. Further, the snails possessed wide developmental windows for inducible defenses that extended past sexual maturity. However, being induced later in development appeared to have an associated cost (i.e., decreased shell thickness) that was not found when water bugs were always present. This epiphenotype (i.e., new shell formation as an extension of the current shell) suggests that resource limitation plays an important role in responses to temporal variation in predation risk and may have critical ecological costs that limit the benefits of the inducible defense. Lastly, the ability of snails to completely reverse their defenses was limited to early in ontogeny due to the constraints associated with modular growth of shell material. In sum, we demonstrate that taking a developmental perspective is extremely valuable for understanding the ecology of inducible defenses.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, USA. jthst21@pitt.edu
authors.forename: Jason T
authors.initials: JT
authors.lastname: Hoverman
authors.forename: Rick A
authors.initials: RA
authors.lastname: Relyea
mesh_terms: D000704:Analysis of Variance; D000818:Animals; D001522:Behavior, Animal / Q000502:physiology*; D001837:Body Weights and Measures; D017753:Ecosystem; D005298:Fertility / Q000502:physiology; D020062:Heteroptera / Q000502:physiology; D010414:Pennsylvania; D010641:Phenotype; D011235:Predatory Behavior / Q000502:physiology; D012908:Snails / Q000033:anatomy & histology* / Q000254:growth & development* / Q000502:physiology