title: DNA-based watermarks using the DNA-Crypt algorithm.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The aim of this paper is to demonstrate the application of watermarks based on DNA sequences to identify the unauthorized use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) protected by patents. Predicted mutations in the genome can be corrected by the DNA-Crypt program leaving the encrypted information intact. Existing DNA cryptographic and steganographic algorithms use synthetic DNA sequences to store binary information however, although these sequences can be used for authentication, they may change the target DNA sequence when introduced into living organisms.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The DNA-Crypt algorithm and image steganography are based on the same watermark-hiding principle, namely using the least significant base in case of DNA-Crypt and the least significant bit in case of the image steganography. It can be combined with binary encryption algorithms like AES, RSA or Blowfish. DNA-Crypt is able to correct mutations in the target DNA with several mutation correction codes such as the Hamming-code or the WDH-code. Mutations which can occur infrequently may destroy the encrypted information, however an integrated fuzzy controller decides on a set of heuristics based on three input dimensions, and recommends whether or not to use a correction code. These three input dimensions are the length of the sequence, the individual mutation rate and the stability over time, which is represented by the number of generations. In silico experiments using the Ypt7 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae shows that the DNA watermarks produced by DNA-Crypt do not alter the translation of mRNA into protein.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The program is able to store watermarks in living organisms and can maintain the original information by correcting mutations itself. Pairwise or multiple sequence alignments show that DNA-Crypt produces few mismatches between the sequences similar to all steganographic algorithms.
authors.affiliation: Department of Experimental Tumorbiology, University of Muenster, Muenster, Germany. dominik.heider@uni-muenster.de <dominik.heider@uni-muenster.de>
authors.forename: Dominik
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Heider
authors.forename: Angelika
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Barnekow
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D016494:Computer Security; D039301:Computers, Molecular; D004247:DNA / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000235:genetics*; D016247:Information Storage and Retrieval / Q000379:methods*; D030781:Organisms, Genetically Modified / Q000235:genetics*; D011356:Product Labeling / Q000379:methods*; D017422:Sequence Analysis, DNA / Q000379:methods*
chemical_list: D004247:DNA