title: Cognition in novice ecstasy users with minimal exposure to other drugs: a prospective cohort study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Ecstasy (street name for [+/-]-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine [MDMA]) use has been associated with cognitive deficits, especially in verbal memory. However, owing to the cross-sectional and retrospective nature of currently available studies, questions remain regarding the causal direction and clinical relevance of these findings.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To examine the relationship between Ecstasy use and subsequent cognitive performance.
  
  
  METHODS
  A prospective cohort study in Ecstasy-naive subjects with a high risk for future first Ecstasy use, as part of the Netherlands XTC Toxicity study. The initial examination took place between April 10, 2002, and April 28, 2004; follow-up was within 3 years after the initial examination.
  
  
  METHODS
  One hundred eighty-eight healthy Ecstasy-naive volunteers (mean age, 22 years) were recruited. Of these, 58 subjects started using Ecstasy (mean cumulative dose, 3.2 tablets; median cumulative dose, 1.5 tablets). They were compared with 60 persistent Ecstasy-naive subjects matched on age, sex, intelligence, and use of substances other than Ecstasy. Differences in cognition between Ecstasy users and Ecstasy-naive subjects were adjusted for differences in cannabis and other recreational drug use.
  
  
  METHODS
  Change scores between the initial examination and follow-up on neurocognitive tests measuring attention, working memory, verbal and visual memory, and visuospatial ability.
  
  
  RESULTS
  At the initial examination, there were no statistically significant differences in any of the neuropsychological test scores between persistent Ecstasy-naive subjects and future Ecstasy users. However, at follow-up, change scores on immediate and delayed verbal recall and verbal recognition were significantly lower in the group of incident Ecstasy users compared with persistent Ecstasy-naive subjects. There were no significant differences on other test scores.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our findings suggest that even a first low cumulative dose of Ecstasy is associated with decline in verbal memory. Although the performance of the group of incident Ecstasy users is still within the normal range and the immediate clinical relevance of the observed deficits is limited, long-term negative consequences cannot be excluded.
authors.affiliation: Amsterdam Institute for Addiction Research, The Netherlands. t.schilt@amc.uva.nl
authors.forename: Thelma
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Schilt
authors.forename: Maartje M L
authors.initials: MM
authors.lastname: de Win
authors.forename: Maarten
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Koeter
authors.forename: Gerry
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Jager
authors.forename: Dirk J
authors.initials: DJ
authors.lastname: Korf
authors.forename: Wim
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: van den Brink
authors.forename: Ben
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Schmand
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001288:Attention / Q000187:drug effects; D002188:Cannabis / Q000009:adverse effects; D003071:Cognition / Q000187:drug effects*; D003072:Cognition Disorders / Q000139:chemically induced* / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000523:psychology; D015331:Cohort Studies; D005260:Female; D005500:Follow-Up Studies; D006801:Humans; D013287:Illicit Drugs / Q000009:adverse effects; D008297:Male; D008568:Memory / Q000187:drug effects; D008569:Memory Disorders / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000523:psychology; D018817:N-Methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000494:pharmacology* / Q000633:toxicity; D009426:Netherlands / Q000453:epidemiology; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D011446:Prospective Studies; D012307:Risk Factors; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology; D014705:Verbal Behavior / Q000187:drug effects
chemical_list: D013287:Illicit Drugs; D018817:N-Methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine