title: Validation and reproducibility of a high-resolution three-dimensional facial imaging system.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To assess the accuracy and reproducibility of a high-resolution three-dimensional imaging system (Di3D).
  
  
  METHODS
  The three-dimensional imaging system was validated in vitro using 12 adult facial plaster casts, which had landmarks marked, and the positions of the landmarks on the three-dimensional images captured by Di3D were compared with those obtained by a coordinate measuring machine (CMM).
  
  
  METHODS
  Operator error was measured by repeatedly locating landmarks on the three-dimensional image. Reproducibility error of the images was calculated by capturing three-dimensional images of the facial casts on two separate occasions; the Euclidean distance between the two matched sets of coordinates was then calculated. The Di3D system error was assessed by calculating the three-dimensional global positions of landmarks on the three-dimensional images and comparing them with those obtained by CMM (gold standard).
  
  
  RESULTS
  The operator error in placement of landmarks on the three-dimensional model was 0.07mm, range 0.02-0.11mm. The reproducibility of the Di3D capture was 0.13mm, range 0.11-0.14mm. The mean distance between the CMM and Di3D landmarks, which constitutes the Di3D system error, was an average of 0.21mm, range 0.14-0.32mm.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The Di3D system error was within 0.2mm, which is clinically acceptable, and offers considerable improvement in stereophotogrammetry for facial capture and analysis.
authors.affiliation: Glasgow Dental Hospital & School, 378 Sauchiehall Street, Glasgow, G2 3JZ, UK.
authors.forename: B
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Khambay
authors.forename: N
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Nairn
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Bell
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Miller
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Bowman
authors.forename: A F
authors.initials: AF
authors.lastname: Ayoub
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000703:Analog-Digital Conversion; D002508:Cephalometry / Q000379:methods*; D005145:Face / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007091:Image Processing, Computer-Assisted; D021621:Imaging, Three-Dimensional / Q000379:methods* / Q000592:standards; D008297:Male; D010780:Photogrammetry / Q000379:methods*; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012986:Software Validation