title: Genetic and environmental factors affecting self-esteem from age 14 to 17: a longitudinal study of Finnish twins.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  We analysed genetic and environmental influences on self-esteem and its stability in adolescence.
  
  
  METHODS
  Finnish twins born in 1983-1987 were assessed by questionnaire at ages 14 (n = 4132 twin individuals) and 17 years (n = 3841 twin individuals). Self-esteem was measured using the Rosenberg global self-esteem scale and analyzed using quantitative genetic methods for twin data in the Mx statistical package.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The heritability of self-esteem was 0.62 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.56-0.68] in 14-year-old boys and 0.40 (95% CI 0.26-0.54) in 14-year-old girls, while the corresponding estimates at age 17 were 0.48 (95% CI 0.39-0.56) and 0.29 (95% CI 0.11-0.45). Rosenberg self-esteem scores at ages 14 and 17 were modestly correlated (r = 0.44 in boys, r = 0.46 in girls). In boys, the correlation was mainly (82%) due to genetic factors, with residual co-variation due to unique environment. In girls, genetic (31%) and common environmental (61%) factors largely explained the correlation.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  In adolescence, self-esteem seems to be differently regulated in boys versus girls. A key challenge for future research is to identify environmental influences contributing to self-esteem during adolescence and determine how these factors interact with genetic influences.
authors.affiliation: Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, Finland. anu.raevuori@helsinki.fi
authors.forename: Anu
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Raevuori
authors.forename: Danielle M
authors.initials: DM
authors.lastname: Dick
authors.forename: Anna
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Keski-Rahkonen
authors.forename: Lea
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Pulkkinen
authors.forename: Richard J
authors.initials: RJ
authors.lastname: Rose
authors.forename: Aila
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Rissanen
authors.forename: Jaakko
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Kaprio
authors.forename: Richard J
authors.initials: RJ
authors.lastname: Viken
authors.forename: Karri
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Silventoinen
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000367:Age Factors; D005190:Family; D005260:Female; D005387:Finland; D006801:Humans; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D010551:Personality / Q000235:genetics*; D010552:Personality Assessment; D000297:Psychology, Adolescent; D012649:Self Concept; D012737:Sex Factors; D012931:Social Environment; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D014427:Twins / Q000235:genetics / Q000523:psychology*