title: Stressful life events and depressive problems in early adolescent boys and girls: the influence of parental depression, temperament and family environment.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Stressful life events increase the probability of depressive problems in early adolescence. Several genetic and environmental risk factors may change individual sensitivity to the depressogenic effect of these events. We examined modification by parental depression and gender, and mediation of the former by temperament and family environment.
  
  
  METHODS
  Data were collected as part of a longitudinal cohort study of (pre)adolescents (n = 2127). During the first assessment wave at approximately age 11, we assessed parental depression, family functioning, perceived parenting behaviours, and temperamental frustration and fearfulness. At the second wave, about two and a half years later, stressful life events between the first and second assessment were assessed. Depressive problems were measured at both waves.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Adolescents with parents who had a (lifetime) depressive episode were more sensitive to the depressogenic effect of stressful events than adolescents without depressed parents. Furthermore, girls are more sensitive to these effects than boys. The modifying effect of parental depression was not mediated by temperament, family functioning and perceived parenting.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Life events were assessed without consideration of contextual information. Depressive problems were measured by questionnaires that did not directly represent DSM-IV criteria. The measure of parental depression was unspecific regarding severity and timing of depressive episodes.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The results suggest that gender and parental depression are associated with increased sensitivity to depression after experiencing stressful life events during adolescence.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry and School of Behavioural and Cognitive Neurosciences, University Medical Centre Groningen, University of Groningen, The Netherlands. E.M.C.Bouma@med.umcg.nl
authors.forename: Esther M C
authors.initials: EM
authors.lastname: Bouma
authors.forename: Johan
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Ormel
authors.forename: Frank C
authors.initials: FC
authors.lastname: Verhulst
authors.forename: Albertine J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Oldehinkel
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D016241:Child of Impaired Parents / Q000523:psychology* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D003866:Depressive Disorder / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000523:psychology*; D039721:Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; D005190:Family / Q000523:psychology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008016:Life Change Events; D008297:Male; D016487:Parenting; D010290:Parents / Q000523:psychology*; D015995:Prevalence; D012720:Severity of Illness Index; D012931:Social Environment; D013694:Temperament