title: Appetitive nature of drug cues re-confirmed with physiological measures and the potential role of stage of change.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Smokers report pleasant reactions to viewing cigarettes, suggesting that smoking cues may be appetitive in nature. Two studies have investigated this hypothesis through physiological assessment. The first study found that smoking cues were physiologically appetitive in nature, with dampened startle response to smoking pictures in comparison to neutral pictures. The second found that smoking pictures did not modulate the startle response, suggesting such cues may not be physiologically appetitive.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  The goal of the present study was to further investigate how participants' motivation to quit smoking might modulate responses to smoking cues.
  
  
  METHODS
  Twenty-two nicotine-dependent smokers viewed standardized pleasant, unpleasant, neutral, and smoking pictures. Eleven of the subjects reported no intent to quit (precontemplators) and 11 reported planning to quit within the next 6 months (contemplators). Acoustic startle probes were randomly administered while subjects viewed the pictures, and eyeblink startle magnitude was measured with electromyography (EMG).
  
  
  RESULTS
  As a whole, participants exhibited dampened startle responses during smoking pictures, relative to unpleasant pictures. Precontemplators showed robust startle inhibition to smoking pictures, in comparison to both neutral and unpleasant pictures. Contemplators, however, showed blunted unpleasant picture augmentation and a lack of startle inhibition for pleasant pictures.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These findings are consistent with the idea that smoking pictures are appetitive in nature. Furthermore, they suggest that smokers at a later stage of change may exhibit a lesser response.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, Texas Tech University, P.O. Box 42051, Lubbock, TX 79409-4201, USA. dempsey@b-med.net
authors.forename: Jared P
authors.initials: JP
authors.lastname: Dempsey
authors.forename: Lee M
authors.initials: LM
authors.lastname: Cohen
authors.forename: Valerie L
authors.initials: VL
authors.lastname: Hobson
authors.forename: Patrick K
authors.initials: PK
authors.lastname: Randall
mesh_terms: D000339:Affect / Q000502:physiology; D000342:Affective Symptoms / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000523:psychology; D000704:Analysis of Variance; D001070:Appetitive Behavior / Q000502:physiology*; D001296:Audiovisual Aids; D003463:Cues; D004576:Electromyography / Q000379:methods; D019260:Expressed Emotion / Q000502:physiology*; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009042:Motivation; D010349:Patient Compliance / Q000523:psychology / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D010775:Photic Stimulation; D013216:Reflex, Startle / Q000502:physiology; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012650:Self Disclosure; D012907:Smoking / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000523:psychology; D016540:Smoking Cessation / Q000379:methods / Q000523:psychology; D014029:Tobacco Use Disorder / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000523:psychology