Post-mortem cases involving amphetamine-based drugs in The Netherlands. Comparison with driving under the influence cases.
In this study we reviewed the post-mortem cases in the years 1999-2004 that were presented at the Netherlands Forensic Institute. The concentrations of amphetamine-based drugs in femoral blood from cases of suspected unnatural death were compared with concentrations in whole blood from non-fatal cases of driving under the influence (DUI cases) and with literature. Furthermore, the combinations with other drugs and/or alcohol were investigated. Amphetamine-based drugs were present in 70 post-mortem cases and 467 DUI cases. The most detected amphetamine-based drug was MDMA, followed by amphetamine. The presence of MDA could usually be explained by metabolism of MDMA. Methamphetamine and MDEA were rarely present. Frequently, the amphetamine-based drugs were taken in combination with alcohol and/or other non-amphetamine-based drugs such as cocaine or cannabinoids. The 70 post-mortem cases were divided into 38 amphetamine-based drug caused (i.e. the amphetamine-based drug directly caused or contributed to the death) and 32 amphetamine-based drug related deaths (i.e. death was not directly caused by the amphetamine-based drug). In the latter category, other (poly)drug intoxications and death by violence or drowning were the most frequent causes of death. In 30 cases, MDMA caused death directly. The range in blood concentrations of MDMA in these cases was substantial, i.e. 0.41-84 mg/L with a median concentration of 3.7 mg/L (n=30). MDMA blood concentrations in the MDMA related deaths (n=20) and in the DUI cases (n=360) varied up to 3.7 and 4.0 mg/L, respectively. Seven victims died from the direct effects of amphetamine; the blood concentration of amphetamine ranged from 0.24 to 11.3 mg/L, with a median concentration of 1.7 mg/L (n=7). The median concentrations of amphetamine in the amphetamine related deaths (n=13) and the DUI cases (n=208) were much lower, i.e. 0.28 and 0.22 mg/L, respectively. Amphetamine blood concentrations up to 6.0 and 2.3 mg/L were seen in the drug related deaths and DUI cases, respectively. The most frequently encountered amphetamine-based drugs in the investigated deaths were MDMA and amphetamine. The majority of MDMA- and amphetamine-caused deaths, i.e. 90% of these deaths, occurred with blood concentrations above 1.5 and 0.80 mg/L, respectively. MDMA and amphetamine blood concentrations in drug related deaths and DUI cases, however, overlap the range of fatal concentrations. Therefore, MDMA or amphetamine concentrations should never be used alone to establish the cause of death.
Verschraagen
Miranda
M
Netherlands Forensic Institute, Department of Toxicology, The Hague, The Netherlands. m.verschraagen@nfi.minjus.nl <m.verschraagen@nfi.minjus.nl>
Maes
Ann
A
Ruiter
Bart
B
Bosman
Ingrid J
IJ
Smink
Beitske E
BE
Lusthof
Klaas J
KJ
D000058:Accidental Falls / Q000401:mortality; D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D019969:Amphetamine-Related Disorders / Q000097:blood* / Q000453:epidemiology*; D000662:Amphetamines / Q000097:blood* / Q000506:poisoning; D001334:Automobile Driving / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence*; D002492:Central Nervous System Depressants / Q000097:blood; D004332:Drowning / Q000401:mortality; D062787:Drug Overdose; D000431:Ethanol / Q000097:blood; D005260:Female; D005390:Fires / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D053593:Forensic Toxicology; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009426:Netherlands / Q000453:epidemiology; D014754:Violence / Q000706:statistics & numerical data
D000662:Amphetamines; D002492:Central Nervous System Depressants; D000431:Ethanol