Extradural cortical stimulation for central pain.
Central pain results from a central nervous system injury and represents a challenge for the pain therapist. Human studies have shown that motor cortex stimulation (MCS), i.e. the placement of a stimulating plate on the dura overlying the motor cortex can relieve brain central pain. Studies suggest that MCS directly affects activity in the first and second order somatosensory areas, thalamic nuclei and also inhibits spinal primary afferents and spinothalamic tract neurons. The following factors have been found to predict analgesia by MCS: intact or almost intact corticospinal motor function, mild or negligible sensory loss, absence of thermal sensory threshold alteration within the painful area, positive response to the barbiturate and/or ketamine test, positive response to the propofol test, positive response to transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). The targeting of the cortical area is made by anatomical localization by computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), neuronavigation, intraoperative neurophysiological recordings, functional MRI (fMRI), and intraoperative clinical assessment. We perform the procedure under local anaesthesia. We describe in detail our surgical technique and stimulation protocol. Furthermore, we review the most important studies with respect to their results, the observed side effects and complications. The future prospects and likely developments of MCS for central pain are also discussed.
Canavero
S
S
Turin Advanced Neuromodulation Group, Turin, Italy. solara@infinito.it
Bonicalzi
V
V
D002493:Central Nervous System Diseases / Q000150:complications; D004599:Electric Stimulation Therapy; D006801:Humans; D007091:Image Processing, Computer-Assisted / Q000379:methods; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging; D009044:Motor Cortex / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000528:radiation effects*; D038361:Neuronavigation; D010146:Pain / Q000209:etiology / Q000473:pathology*; D059408:Pain Management