title: An animal model of functional electrical stimulation: evidence that the central nervous system modulates the consequences of training.
abstract: METHODS
  Review of how spinal neurons can modulate the consequences of functional electrical stimulation (FES) in an animal model.
  
  
  METHODS
  Spinal effects of FES are examined in male Sprague-Dawley rats transected at the second thoracic vertebra. The rats are exposed to FES training 24-48 h after surgery. Experimental manipulations of stimulation parameters, combined with physiological and pharmacological procedures, are used to examine the potential role of spinal neurons.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The isolated spinal cord is inherently capable of learning the response-outcome relations imposed in FES training contingencies. Adaptive behavioral modifications are observed when an outcome (electrical stimulation) is contingent on a behavioral response. In contrast, a lack of correlation between the response and outcome in training produces a learning deficit in the spinal cord, rendering it incapable of adaptive learning for up to 48 h. The N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptor appears to mediate both the adaptive plasticity and loss of plasticity, seen in this spinal model.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The behavioral effects observed with FES therapies are not simply due to the direct (motor) consequences of stimulation elicited by the activation of efferent motor neurons and/or selected muscles. FES training has the capacity to shape inherent spinal circuits and to produce a long-lasting behavioral modification. Further understanding of the spinal mechanisms underlying adaptive behavioral modification will be integral for establishing functional neural connections in a regenerating spinal system.
authors: Department of Psychology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-4235, USA.
authors: M A
authors: MA
authors: Hook
authors: J W
authors: JW
authors: Grau
mesh_terms: D000779:Anesthetics, Local / Q000494:pharmacology; D000818:Animals; D001522:Behavior, Animal / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D002490:Central Nervous System / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology / Q000528:radiation effects*; D016291:Dizocilpine Maleate / Q000494:pharmacology; D004558:Electric Stimulation; D018691:Excitatory Amino Acid Antagonists / Q000494:pharmacology; D007858:Learning / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology* / Q000528:radiation effects; D008012:Lidocaine / Q000494:pharmacology; D008297:Male; D023421:Models, Animal; D009474:Neurons / Q000187:drug effects / Q000528:radiation effects*; D051381:Rats; D017207:Rats, Sprague-Dawley; D013116:Spinal Cord / Q000166:cytology*; D013997:Time Factors
chemical_list: D000779:Anesthetics, Local; D018691:Excitatory Amino Acid Antagonists; D016291:Dizocilpine Maleate; D008012:Lidocaine
references: Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2001 Jun;82(6):818-24
references: 11387589
references: Annu Rev Biomed Eng. 2005;7:327-60
references: 16004574
references: Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2001 Mar;933:142-56
references: 12000017
references: Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2001 Mar;933:175-84
references: 12000019
references: Phys Ther. 2002 Jul;82(7):707-15
references: 12088467
references: Physiol Behav. 2002 Nov;77(2-3):259-67
references: 12419402
references: J Neurophysiol. 2001 Aug;86(2):845-55
references: 11495955
references: Scand J Rehabil Med. 2000 Jun;32(2):72-9
references: 10853721
references: Behav Neurosci. 2002 Dec;116(6):1032-51
references: 12492302
references: Behav Cogn Neurosci Rev. 2006 Dec;5(4):191-239
references: 17099112
references: Neuroscience. 2006 Aug 11;141(1):421-31
references: 16678969
references: Spinal Cord. 2006 Jun;44(6):357-61
references: 16249784
references: J Neurosci. 2006 Feb 1;26(5):1562-70
references: 16452679
references: Pain. 2006 Jan;120(1-2):182-7
references: 16360266
references: Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 2002 Oct;40(1-3):202-14
references: 12589918
references: Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 2002 Oct;40(1-3):257-66
references: 12589924
references: Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 2002 Oct;40(1-3):274-91
references: 12589926
references: Behav Brain Res. 2003 May 15;141(2):159-70
references: 12742252
references: Behav Neurosci. 2003 Aug;117(4):799-812
references: 12931964
references: Eur J Neurosci. 2003 Nov;18(9):2467-76
references: 14622147
references: Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2003 Nov;1003:1-11
references: 14684431
references: Neurobiol Learn Mem. 2004 Jul;82(1):35-51
references: 15183169
references: Annu Rev Neurosci. 2004;27:145-67
references: 15217329
references: Behav Brain Res. 2004 Oct 5;154(2):431-8
references: 15313031
references: J Spinal Cord Med. 2004;27(4):365-75
references: 15484667
references: J Neurosci. 1986 May;6(5):1433-42
references: 3711988
references: J Neurophysiol. 1991 Dec;66(6):1874-87
references: 1812222
references: J Neurotrauma. 1992 Summer;9(2):123-6; discussion 126-8
references: 1404425
references: Exp Brain Res. 1992;90(3):469-78
references: 1426107
references: Behav Neurosci. 1993 Jun;107(3):493-505
references: 8392349
references: Behav Neurosci. 1994 Apr;108(2):235-40
references: 7913606
references: J Neurosci. 1994 Sep;14(9):5580-9
references: 7916046
references: Neuropeptides. 1994 Jun;26(6):413-9
references: 7523981
references: Behav Neural Biol. 1994 Sep;62(2):140-50
references: 7993304
references: J Neurotrauma. 1995 Feb;12(1):1-21
references: 7783230
references: J Rehabil Res Dev. 1996 Apr;33(2):145-57
references: 8724170
references: Behav Neurosci. 1996 Dec;110(6):1375-87
references: 8986339
references: J Neurosci. 1997 Aug 15;17(16):6483-91
references: 9236256
references: J Neurotrauma. 1997 Aug;14(8):517-37
references: 9300563
references: Eur J Neurosci. 1998 Jul;10(7):2476-80
references: 9749775
references: Behav Neurosci. 1998 Dec;112(6):1366-86
references: 9926819
references: Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 1999 Feb;80(2):225-35
references: 10025502
references: Clin Neurophysiol. 2005 Jan;116(1):75-86
references: 15589186
references: J Neurotrauma. 2004 Nov;21(11):1601-13
references: 15684652
references: J Neurotrauma. 2004 Dec;21(12):1795-817
references: 15684770
references: Behav Neurosci. 2005 Apr;119(2):538-47
references: 15839800
references: Nature. 2000 Jun 22;405(6789):955-9
references: 10879537