title: Estimating causal parameters without target populations.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  In recent years, numerous research methodologists have argued forcefully that any estimated effect from an observational study or a randomized trial should apply to a 'target population'- to a finite group of people. Some methods to adjust for confounders heavily draw upon this idea.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  I cite a recently published paper in The American Journal of Epidemiology that linked methods to adjust for confounders to the concept of a 'target population'. I explain that the requirement to specify a finite population as the target of causal inference is rooted in two extreme models of causation: determinism and stochastic causation.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  I argue that the 'target population' epistemology is scientifically irrelevant and so are methods to handle confounders that are founded on this paradigm, namely, standardization, inverse-probability-of-treatment weighting and SMR-weighting. Finally, I propose a simple alternative framework under an indeterministic model of causation. According to my proposed model, a causal parameter is not tied to any finite population and its estimate is a (fallible) scientific conjecture about a homogeneous, individual-level effect.
authors.affiliation: Division of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA. shahar@email.arizona.edu
authors.forename: Eyal
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Shahar
mesh_terms: D015984:Causality; D015986:Confounding Factors, Epidemiologic; D003627:Data Interpretation, Statistical; D006801:Humans; D012107:Research Design