title: Defense against environmental ammonia toxicity in the African lungfish, Protopterus aethiopicus: Bimodal breathing, skin ammonia permeability and urea synthesis.
abstract: This study aimed to determine how the African lungfish Protopterus aethiopicus defended against ammonia toxicity when confronted with high concentrations (30 or 100 mmoll(-1)) of environmental ammonia. Exposure to 100 mmoll(-1) of NH(4)Cl for 1 or 6 days had no significant effect on the rate of O(2) uptake from water or from air, and the rate of total O(2) consumption. Using an Ussing-like apparatus, we report for the first time that the skin of P. aethiopicus had low permeability (1.26 x 10(-4) micromol min(-1)cm(-1)) to NH(3)in vitro. Indeed, the influx of exogenous ammonia into fish exposed to 30 mmoll(-1) NH(4)Cl was low (0.117 micromol min(-1) 100g(-1) fish). As a result, P. aethiopicus could afford to maintain relatively low ammonia contents in plasma, muscle, liver and brain even after 6 days of exposure to 100 mmoll(-1) NH(4)Cl. Surprisingly, fish exposed to 30 or 100 mmoll(-1) NH(4)Cl had comparable ammonia contents in the muscle and the brain in spite of the big difference (70 mmoll(-1)) in environmental ammonia concentrations. Significant increases in urea contents occurred in various tissues of fish exposed to 30 mmoll(-1) NH(4)Cl for 6 days, but there were no significant differences in tissue urea contents between fish exposed to 30 mmoll(-1) and 100 mmoll(-1) NH(4)Cl. Between days 3 and 6, the rate of urea excretion in fish exposed to 30 mmoll(-1) NH(4)Cl was significantly greater than that of the control. By contrast, there was no significant difference in urea excretion rates between fish exposed to 100 mmoll(-1) NH(4)Cl and control fish throughout the 6-day period, and such a phenomenon has not been reported before for other lungfish species. Thus, our results suggest that P. aethiopicus was capable of decreasing the NH(3) permeability of its body surface when exposed to high concentrations of environmental ammonia. Indeed, after 6 days of exposure to 100 mmoll(-1) NH(4)Cl, the NH(3) permeability constant of the skin (0.55 x 10(-4) micromol min(-1)cm(-1)) decreased to half of that of the control. A decrease in the already low cutaneous NH(3) permeability and an increased urea synthesis, working in combination, allowed P. aethiopicus to effectively defend against environmental ammonia toxicity without elevating the plasma ammonia level. Therefore, unlike other fishes, glutamine and alanine contents did not increase in the muscle and liver, and there was no accumulation of glutamine in the brain, even when the fish was immersed in water containing 100 mmoll(-1) NH(4)Cl.
authors: Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Republic of Singapore.
authors: A M
authors: AM
authors: Loong
authors: J Y L
authors: JY
authors: Tan
authors: W P
authors: WP
authors: Wong
authors: S F
authors: SF
authors: Chew
authors: Y K
authors: YK
authors: Ip
mesh_terms: D000596:Amino Acids / Q000097:blood; D000641:Ammonia / Q000378:metabolism / Q000633:toxicity*; D000818:Animals; D004781:Environmental Exposure; D005260:Female; D005399:Fishes / Q000502:physiology*; D008297:Male; D010101:Oxygen Consumption / Q000187:drug effects*; D010539:Permeability / Q000187:drug effects; D012867:Skin / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism; D014508:Urea / Q000032:analysis / Q000378:metabolism; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000378:metabolism / Q000633:toxicity*
chemical_list: D000596:Amino Acids; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical; D000641:Ammonia; D014508:Urea