title: Dynamics of knockdown pyrethroid insecticide resistance alleles in a field population of Anopheles gambiae s.s. in southwestern Nigeria.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Pyrethroid insecticide resistance in the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae Giles is mainly associated with reduced target site sensitivity arising from a single point mutation in the sodium channel gene, often referred to as knockdown resistance (kdr). This resistance mechanism is widespread in West Africa and was reported for the first time in Nigeria in 2002. Here we present changes in the susceptibility/resistance status of the molecular 'M' and 'S' forms of An. gambiae and the frequency of the kdr alleles from 2002-05.
  
  
  METHODS
  Adult anophelines were sampled quarterly inside human dwellings from January 2002 to December 2005 and adults reared from wild larvae were identified using morphological keys. Samples belonging to the An. gambiae complex were subjected to PCR assays for species identification and detection of molecular 'M' and 'S' forms. Insecticide susceptibility tests were carried out using standard WHO procedures and test kits only on 2-3 days old adult An. gambiae s.s. reared from larval collections. The kdr genotypes were determined in both live and dead specimens of An. gambiae s.s. using alleles-specific polymerase chain reaction diagnostic tests.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The overall collection showed that the molecular 'S' form was predominant (> 60%) but the proportions of both forms in the mosquito populations from 2002-05 were not statistically different. Both forms also occurred throughout the period without apparent relationship to wet or dry season. Insecticide susceptibility tests did not show any significant increase in the resistance status recorded for either Permethrin or DDT from 2002-05, rather, an improvement in the susceptibility status of the mosquitoes to these insecticides was observed from 2004-05 relative to the tests performed in 2002-03.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The proportion of the molecular 'M' and 'S' form of An. gambiae and the kdr frequencies have not increased significantly from 2002 when it was first reported in Nigeria. However, the findings on susceptible mosquitoes exhibiting the kdr gene need further investigation. Further monitoring of this may provide additional information on the ongoing debate on the possibility of restriction in gene flow and reproductive barriers in these sympatric taxa.
authors: Public Health Division, Nigerian Institute of Medical Research, Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria. awololas@hotmail.com
authors: T S
authors: TS
authors: Awolola
authors: A O
authors: AO
authors: Oduola
authors: I O
authors: IO
authors: Oyewole
authors: J B
authors: JB
authors: Obansa
authors: C N
authors: CN
authors: Amajoh
authors: L L
authors: LL
authors: Koekemoer
authors: M
authors: M
authors: Coetzee
mesh_terms: D000483:Alleles; D000818:Animals; D000852:Anopheles / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000235:genetics*; D006801:Humans; D007305:Insecticide Resistance; D007306:Insecticides / Q000494:pharmacology*; D009154:Mutation; D009549:Nigeria; D016133:Polymerase Chain Reaction / Q000379:methods; D011722:Pyrethrins / Q000494:pharmacology*; D012621:Seasons; D013045:Species Specificity
chemical_list: D007306:Insecticides; D011722:Pyrethrins