title: Positive and protective: effects of early theory of mind on problem behaviors in at-risk preschoolers.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Exposure to harsh parenting and children's skills in 'Theory of Mind' (ToM) show independent and interacting associations with problem behaviors at age 2 (Hughes & Ensor, 2006). This study examined whether these age-2 measures also predict age-4 problem behaviors.
  
  
  METHODS
  In a socially diverse sample (N = 120), multi-informant, multi-measure, multi-setting ratings indexed problem behaviors at ages 2, 3 and 4; children completed both ToM and verbal-ability tasks at age 2, while video-based ratings of maternal negative affect and control within dyadic mother-child play indexed harsh parenting.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Age-2 harsh parenting and ToM were independent and interacting predictors of age-4 problem behaviors, even with age-2 problem behaviors, verbal ability and social disadvantage all controlled. The interaction between harsh parenting and ToM distinguished persistent vs. diminishing problem behaviors.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Both child and family characteristics predict increases in problem behaviors from 2 to 4; adverse effects of harsh parenting are attenuated for children with good ToM skills.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Family Research, University of Cambridge, UK. ch288@cam.ac.uk
authors.forename: Claire
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Hughes
authors.forename: Rosie
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Ensor
mesh_terms: D000223:Adaptation, Psychological; D000339:Affect; D000342:Affective Symptoms / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000523:psychology; D001289:Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000523:psychology; D019958:Attention Deficit and Disruptive Behavior Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000523:psychology; D002653:Child Behavior Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000523:psychology*; D002659:Child Development Disorders, Pervasive / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000523:psychology; D002675:Child, Preschool; D019955:Conduct Disorder / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000523:psychology; D003469:Culture; D005260:Female; D005500:Follow-Up Studies; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009034:Mother-Child Relations; D016487:Parenting / Q000523:psychology; D018187:Personal Construct Theory; D010552:Personality Assessment; D010988:Play and Playthings; D011379:Prognosis; D011610:Psychosocial Deprivation; D012307:Risk Factors