title: The effect of statins in colorectal cancer is mediated through the bone morphogenetic protein pathway.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Epidemiological evidence suggests that statins prevent colorectal cancer (CRC), but the biological mechanism remains obscure. Statins induce bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) expression in bone cells. We have previously shown that BMPs act as tumor suppressors in CRC. We hypothesized that the action of statins in CRC involves the induction of BMPs.
  
  
  METHODS
  We investigated the effects of statins on CRC cell lines using immunoblotting, measurements of apoptosis and cell proliferation, and luciferase reporter assays. The effect of statins was confirmed in a xenograft mouse model.
  
  
  RESULTS
  CRC cell lines show widely differing sensitivities to statin treatment. Sensitive cell lines show induction of BMP2 protein levels and a BMP2 reporter construct, activation of the BMP pathway, and induction of the BMP target gene ID-2, whereas resistant cell lines do not. The addition of the specific inhibitor of BMPs, noggin, completely prevents lovastatin-induced apoptosis in sensitive cells. Sensitive cell lines express the central BMP pathway element SMAD4, whereas the resistant cell lines do not. Targeted knockout of SMAD4 leads to the loss of statin sensitivity and reconstitution with SMAD4, to the restoration of statin sensitivity. In a xenograft mouse model, tumors from sensitive and insensitive cell lines were treated with oral simvastatin. Significant inhibition of tumor growth using sensitive cells but increased tumor growth when using insensitive cells was observed.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Statins induce apoptosis in CRC cells through induction of BMP2. Statin therapy may only be effective in SMAD4-expressing CRCs and may have adverse effects in SMAD4-negative tumors.
authors.affiliation: Center for Experimental and Molecular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Liudmila L
authors.initials: LL
authors.lastname: Kodach
authors.forename: Sylvia A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Bleuming
authors.forename: Maikel P
authors.initials: MP
authors.lastname: Peppelenbosch
authors.forename: Daniel W
authors.initials: DW
authors.lastname: Hommes
authors.forename: Gijs R
authors.initials: GR
authors.lastname: van den Brink
authors.forename: James C H
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Hardwick
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000970:Antineoplastic Agents / Q000494:pharmacology* / Q000627:therapeutic use; D017209:Apoptosis / Q000187:drug effects; D055396:Bone Morphogenetic Protein 2; D019485:Bone Morphogenetic Proteins / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism*; D002352:Carrier Proteins / Q000378:metabolism; D049109:Cell Proliferation / Q000187:drug effects; D002470:Cell Survival / Q000187:drug effects; D015179:Colorectal Neoplasms / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism / Q000473:pathology; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D019008:Drug Resistance, Neoplasm; D005260:Female; D017930:Genes, Reporter; D045325:HCT116 Cells; D019073:HT29 Cells; D006801:Humans; D019161:Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductase Inhibitors / Q000494:pharmacology* / Q000627:therapeutic use; D008148:Lovastatin / Q000494:pharmacology* / Q000627:therapeutic use; D008156:Luciferases / Q000235:genetics; D051379:Mice; D008819:Mice, Nude; D015398:Signal Transduction / Q000187:drug effects*; D019821:Simvastatin / Q000494:pharmacology* / Q000627:therapeutic use; D051901:Smad4 Protein / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism; D014162:Transfection; D016212:Transforming Growth Factor beta / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism*; D015854:Up-Regulation; D023041:Xenograft Model Antitumor Assays; D000099176:Noggin Protein
chemical_list: D000970:Antineoplastic Agents; D055396:Bone Morphogenetic Protein 2; D019485:Bone Morphogenetic Proteins; D002352:Carrier Proteins; D019161:Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductase Inhibitors; D008148:Lovastatin; D008156:Luciferases; D019821:Simvastatin; D051901:Smad4 Protein; D016212:Transforming Growth Factor beta; D000099176:Noggin Protein; C525718:BMP2 protein, human; C525719:Bmp2 protein, mouse; C497796:SMAD4 protein, human