title: Medications for acute and chronic low back pain: a review of the evidence for an American Pain Society/American College of Physicians clinical practice guideline.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Medications are the most frequently prescribed therapy for low back pain. A challenge in choosing pharmacologic therapy is that each class of medication is associated with a unique balance of risks and benefits.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To assess benefits and harms of acetaminophen, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), antidepressants, benzodiazepines, antiepileptic drugs, skeletal muscle relaxants, opioid analgesics, tramadol, and systemic corticosteroids for acute or chronic low back pain (with or without leg pain).
  
  
  METHODS
  English-language studies were identified through searches of MEDLINE (through November 2006) and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2006, Issue 4). These electronic searches were supplemented by hand searching reference lists and additional citations suggested by experts.
  
  
  METHODS
  Systematic reviews and randomized trials of dual therapy or monotherapy with 1 or more of the preceding medications for acute or chronic low back pain that reported pain outcomes, back-specific function, general health status, work disability, or patient satisfaction.
  
  
  METHODS
  We abstracted information about study design, population characteristics, interventions, outcomes, and adverse events. To grade methodological quality, we used the Oxman criteria for systematic reviews and the Cochrane Back Review Group criteria for individual trials.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We found good evidence that NSAIDs, acetaminophen, skeletal muscle relaxants (for acute low back pain), and tricyclic antidepressants (for chronic low back pain) are effective for pain relief. The magnitude of benefit was moderate (effect size of 0.5 to 0.8, improvement of 10 to 20 points on a 100-point visual analogue pain scale, or relative risk of 1.25 to 2.00 for the proportion of patients experiencing clinically significant pain relief), except in the case of tricyclic antidepressants (for which the benefit was small to moderate). We also found fair evidence that opioids, tramadol, benzodiazepines, and gabapentin (for radiculopathy) are effective for pain relief. We found good evidence that systemic corticosteroids are ineffective. Adverse events, such as sedation, varied by medication, although reliable data on serious and long-term harms are sparse. Most trials were short term (< or =4 weeks). Few data address efficacy of dual-medication therapy compared with monotherapy, or beneficial effects on functional outcomes.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our primary source of data was systematic reviews. We included non-English-language trials only if they were included in English-language systematic reviews.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Medications with good evidence of short-term effectiveness for low back pain are NSAIDs, acetaminophen, skeletal muscle relaxants (for acute low back pain), and tricyclic antidepressants (for chronic low back pain). Evidence is insufficient to identify one medication as offering a clear overall net advantage because of complex tradeoffs between benefits and harms. Individual patients are likely to differ in how they weigh potential benefits, harms, and costs of various medications.
authors.affiliation: Oregon Evidence-based Practice Center and Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon 97239, USA. chour@ohsu.edu
authors.forename: Roger
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Chou
authors.forename: Laurie Hoyt
authors.initials: LH
authors.lastname: Huffman
mesh_terms: D000082:Acetaminophen / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000208:Acute Disease; D000305:Adrenal Cortex Hormones / Q000627:therapeutic use; D018712:Analgesics, Non-Narcotic / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000701:Analgesics, Opioid / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000927:Anticonvulsants / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000928:Antidepressive Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use; D001569:Benzodiazepines / Q000627:therapeutic use; D002908:Chronic Disease; D004359:Drug Therapy, Combination; D006801:Humans; D017116:Low Back Pain / Q000188:drug therapy*; D009465:Neuromuscular Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use
chemical_list: D000305:Adrenal Cortex Hormones; D018712:Analgesics, Non-Narcotic; D000701:Analgesics, Opioid; D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal; D000927:Anticonvulsants; D000928:Antidepressive Agents; D009465:Neuromuscular Agents; D001569:Benzodiazepines; D000082:Acetaminophen