title: Photodegradation of malachite green under natural sunlight irradiation: kinetic and toxicity of the transformation products.
abstract: This article describes the photolytic degradation of malachite green (MG), a cationic triphenylmethane dye used worldwide as a fungicide and antiseptic in the aquaculture industry. Photolysis experiments were performed by direct exposure of a solution of MG in water to natural sunlight. The main transformation products (TPs) generated during the process were identified by liquid chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-TOF-MS) and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The 28 TPs identified with this strategy indicate that MG undergoes three main reactions, N-demethylation, hydroxylation and cleavage of the conjugated structure forming benzophenone derivatives. These processes involve hydroxyl radical attack on the phenyl ring, the N,N-dimethylamine group and the central carbon atom. The Vibrio fischeri acute toxicity test showed that the solution remains toxic after MG has completely disappeared. This toxicity could be assigned, at least in part, to the formation of 4-(dimethylamine)benzophenone, which has an EC(50,30 min) of 0.061 mg l(-1), and is considered "very toxic to aquatic organisms" by current EU legislation.
authors.affiliation: Plataforma Solar de Almería-CIEMAT, Carretera Senés Km. 4, 04200 Tabernas, Spain.
authors.forename: L A
authors.initials: LA
authors.lastname: Pérez-Estrada
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Agüera
authors.forename: M D
authors.initials: MD
authors.lastname: Hernando
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Malato
authors.forename: A R
authors.initials: AR
authors.lastname: Fernández-Alba
mesh_terms: D048908:Aliivibrio fischeri / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism; D000891:Anti-Infective Agents, Local / Q000528:radiation effects* / Q000633:toxicity; D017756:Aquaculture; D004396:Coloring Agents / Q000528:radiation effects* / Q000633:toxicity; D005659:Fungicides, Industrial / Q000528:radiation effects* / Q000633:toxicity; D006868:Hydrolysis; D049449:Luminescence; D010782:Photolysis; D012394:Rosaniline Dyes / Q000528:radiation effects* / Q000633:toxicity; D013472:Sunlight; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000528:radiation effects* / Q000633:toxicity
chemical_list: D000891:Anti-Infective Agents, Local; D004396:Coloring Agents; D005659:Fungicides, Industrial; D012394:Rosaniline Dyes; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical; C005095:malachite green