title: Optical measurements of intramural action potentials in isolated porcine hearts using optrodes.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Measurements of intramural membrane potential (Vm) would greatly increase knowledge of cardiac arrhythmias and defibrillation. Optrodes offer the possibility for three-dimensional Vm mapping, but their signal quality has been inadequate.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  The purpose of this work was to improve optrode signal quality and use optrodes to measure intramural distribution of action potentials and shock-induced Vm changes in porcine hearts.
  
  
  METHODS
  Optrodes were made from seven optical fibers 225 or 325 microm in diameter. Fiber ends were polished at a 45 degrees angle, which improved light collection and allowed their insertion without a needle. Fluorescent measurements were performed in isolated porcine hearts perfused with Tyrode's solution or blood using Vm-sensitive dye RH-237 and a 200-W Hg/Xe lamp.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The signal-to-noise ratio for 325-microm fibers was 44 +/- 23 in blood-perfused hearts (n = 5) and 106 +/- 45 in Tyrode's-perfused hearts (n = 3), which represents an approximately four-fold improvement over previously reported data. There was close correspondence between optical and electrical measurements of activation times and action potential duration (APD). No significant intramural APD gradients were observed at cycle lengths up to 4 s and in the presence of dofetilide or d-sotalol. Application of shocks (5-50 V/cm) produced large intramural Vm changes (up to approximately 200% action potential amplitude), possibly reflecting a combined effect of tissue discontinuities and optrode geometry.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  A substantial improvement of optrode signal quality was achieved. Optical measurements of APD and activation times matched electrical measurements. Optrode measurements revealed no significant intramural APD gradients. Application of shocks caused large intramural Vm changes that could be influenced by the optrode geometry.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, USA.
authors.forename: Wei
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Kong
authors.forename: Nadia
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Fakhari
authors.forename: Oleg F
authors.initials: OF
authors.lastname: Sharifov
authors.forename: Raymond E
authors.initials: RE
authors.lastname: Ideker
authors.forename: William M
authors.initials: WM
authors.lastname: Smith
authors.forename: Vladimir G
authors.initials: VG
authors.lastname: Fast
mesh_terms: D000200:Action Potentials / Q000502:physiology*; D000818:Animals; D002304:Cardiac Pacing, Artificial; D004554:Electric Countershock; D004562:Electrocardiography; D005336:Fiber Optic Technology / Q000295:instrumentation*; D006321:Heart / Q000294:innervation*; D008564:Membrane Potentials / Q000502:physiology; D055100:Optical Fibers; D010865:Pilot Projects; D013552:Swine