title: Extensive ssDNA end formation at DNA double-strand breaks in non-homologous end-joining deficient cells during the S phase.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Efficient and correct repair of DNA damage, especially DNA double-strand breaks, is critical for cellular survival. Defects in the DNA repair may lead to cell death or genomic instability and development of cancer. Non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) is the major repair pathway for DNA double-strand breaks in mammalian cells. The ability of other repair pathways, such as homologous recombination, to compensate for loss of NHEJ and the ways in which contributions of different pathways are regulated are far from fully understood.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In this report we demonstrate that long single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) ends are formed at radiation-induced DNA double-strand breaks in NHEJ deficient cells. At repair times > or = 1 h, processing of unrejoined DNA double-strand breaks generated extensive ssDNA at the DNA ends in cells lacking the NHEJ protein complexes DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) or DNA Ligase IV/XRCC4. The ssDNA formation was cell cycle dependent, since no ssDNA ends were observed in G1-synchronized NHEJ deficient cells. Furthermore, in wild type cells irradiated in the presence of DNA-PKcs (catalytic subunit of DNA-PK) inhibitors, or in DNA-PKcs deficient cells complemented with DNA-PKcs mutated in six autophosphorylation sites (ABCDE), no ssDNA was formed. The ssDNA generation also greatly influences DNA double-strand break quantification by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, resulting in overestimation of the DNA double-strand break repair capability in NHEJ deficient cells when standard protocols for preparing naked DNA (i. e., lysis at 50 degrees C) are used.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We provide evidence that DNA Ligase IV/XRCC4 recruitment by DNA-PK to DNA double-strand breaks prevents the formation of long ssDNA ends at double-strand breaks during the S phase, indicating that NHEJ components may downregulate an alternative repair process where ssDNA ends are required.
authors.affiliation: Division of Biomedical Radiation Sciences, Department of Oncology, Radiology and Clinical Immunology, Rudbeck Laboratory, Uppsala University, SE-751 85 Uppsala, Sweden. karin.karlsson@bms.uu.se
authors.forename: Karin H
authors.initials: KH
authors.lastname: Karlsson
authors.forename: Bo
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Stenerlöw
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D016466:CHO Cells; D002478:Cells, Cultured; D006224:Cricetinae; D003412:Cricetulus; D004247:DNA / Q000302:isolation & purification; D053903:DNA Breaks, Double-Stranded / Q000528:radiation effects; D000072481:DNA Ligase ATP; D011088:DNA Ligases / Q000378:metabolism; D049914:DNA Repair-Deficiency Disorders / Q000235:genetics / Q000473:pathology*; D004277:DNA, Single-Stranded / Q000096:biosynthesis* / Q000378:metabolism / Q000528:radiation effects; D051747:DNA-Activated Protein Kinase / Q000378:metabolism; D004268:DNA-Binding Proteins / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism; D006801:Humans; D008954:Models, Biological; D011485:Protein Binding; D016196:S Phase / Q000235:genetics* / Q000528:radiation effects; D017422:Sequence Analysis, DNA; D013696:Temperature
chemical_list: D004277:DNA, Single-Stranded; D004268:DNA-Binding Proteins; C000607893:LIG4 protein, human; C101467:XRCC4 protein, human; D004247:DNA; D051747:DNA-Activated Protein Kinase; D011088:DNA Ligases; D000072481:DNA Ligase ATP