title: Robot-assisted thoracoscopic brachytherapy for lung cancer: comparison of the ZEUS robot, VATS, and manual seed implantation.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Interstitial brachytherapy is becoming an accepted treatment option for lung cancer patients for whom surgery poses a high risk. Robotic surgery has the potential to deliver brachytherapy seeds into tumors while keeping surgeons at a safe distance from the radioactive source. Our aim was to compare the accuracy, number of attempts, and time needed to place seeds next to a target when using a manual technique, video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS), and the ZEUS robot for minimally invasive surgery (MIS).
  
  
  METHODS
  A brachytherapy seed injector was developed and attached to one of the ZEUS robotic arms. Four subjects each inserted inactive dummy brachytherapy seeds into clear agar-gelatin cubes containing a 1.6-mm stainless steel ball target. Two orthogonal radiographs were taken of each agar cube, and the corresponding distances were measured in triplicate using ImageJ processing software. The mean distance between the center of each seed and the corresponding target was calculated using the Pythagorean theorem. Comparisons were made using analysis of variance, t-tests, and Kruskal-Wallis tests, as appropriate.
  
  
  RESULTS
  A total of 384 tests (128 for each technique) were performed. The median accuracies for the manual technique, VATS, and ZEUS were 1.8 mm (range: 0.9-6.7 mm), 2.4 mm (range: 1.0-11.3 mm), and 3.6 mm (range: 1.3-16.7 mm), respectively (p < 0.01). The median numbers of attempts for the manual technique, VATS, and ZEUS were 1 (range: 1-5), 4 (range: 1-14), and 3 (range: 1-20), respectively (p < 0.01). The median times for the manual technique, VATS, and ZEUS were 3.0 s (range: 1-43 s), 86.5 s (range: 6-372 s), and 64.5 s (range: 5-356 s), respectively (p < 0.01).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The manual technique is the most accurate, least traumatic, and fastest method of inserting seeds into tumors. The ZEUS robotic platform was able to place seeds beside a target within a clinically acceptable distance, with an acceptable amount of trauma and time required. It achieved results equal to or better than those obtained with VATS.
authors.affiliation: Canadian Surgical Technologies & Advanced Robotics (CSTAR), London, Ontario, Canada.
authors.forename: Guo-Wei
authors.initials: GW
authors.lastname: Ma
authors.forename: Martin
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Pytel
authors.forename: Ana Luisa
authors.initials: AL
authors.lastname: Trejos
authors.forename: Victoria
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Hornblower
authors.forename: Jennifer
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Smallwood
authors.forename: Rajni
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Patel
authors.forename: Aaron
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Fenster
authors.forename: Richard A
authors.initials: RA
authors.lastname: Malthaner
mesh_terms: D001918:Brachytherapy / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods*; D004867:Equipment Design; D006801:Humans; D015552:Injections, Intralesional / Q000295:instrumentation*; D008175:Lung Neoplasms / Q000532:radiotherapy*; D008954:Models, Biological; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012371:Robotics; D020775:Thoracic Surgery, Video-Assisted