title: Effects of galactooligosaccharide and long-chain fructooligosaccharide supplementation during pregnancy on maternal and neonatal microbiota and immunity--a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Galactooligosaccharides (GOS) and long-chain fructooligosaccharides (lcFOS) proliferate bifidobacteria in infant gut microbiota. However, it is not known how GOS and FOS influence the microbiota of pregnant women and whether a potential prebiotic effect is transferred to the offspring.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  We aimed to test how supplementation with GOS and lcFOS (GOS/lcFOS) in the last trimester of pregnancy affects maternal and neonatal gut microbiota. Variables of fetal immunity were assessed as a secondary outcome.
  
  
  METHODS
  In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study, 48 pregnant women were supplemented 3 times/d with 3 g GOS/lcFOS (at a ratio of 9:1) or maltodextrin (placebo) from week 25 of gestation until delivery. Percentages of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli within total bacterial counts were detected by fluorescent in situ hybridization and quantitative polymerase chain reaction in maternal and neonatal (days 5, 20, and approximately 182) stool samples. Variables of fetal immunity were assessed in cord blood by using flow cytometry and cytokine multiplex-array analysis.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The proportions of bifidobacteria in the maternal gut were significantly higher in the supplemented group than in the placebo group (21.0% and 12.4%, respectively; P = 0.026); the proportion of lactobacilli did not differ between the groups. In neonates, bifidobacteria and lactobacilli percentages, diversity and similarity indexes, and fetal immune parameters did not differ significantly between the 2 groups. Mother-neonate similarity indexes of bifidobacteria decreased over time.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  GOS/lcFOS supplementation has a bifidogenic effect on maternal gut microbiota that is not transferred to neonates. The increased maternal bifidobacteria did not affect fetal immunity as measured by a comprehensive examination of cord blood immunity variables.
authors.affiliation: Pediatric Immune Regulation Clinical Cooperation Group, Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich, Germany.
authors.forename: Rania
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Shadid
authors.forename: Monique
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Haarman
authors.forename: Jan
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Knol
authors.forename: Winfried
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Theis
authors.forename: Christopher
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Beermann
authors.forename: Dorothea
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Rjosk-Dendorfer
authors.forename: Dolores J
authors.initials: DJ
authors.lastname: Schendel
authors.forename: Berthold V
authors.initials: BV
authors.lastname: Koletzko
authors.forename: Susanne
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Krauss-Etschmann
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D001644:Bifidobacterium; D016207:Cytokines / Q000096:biosynthesis; D019587:Dietary Supplements; D004311:Double-Blind Method; D005260:Female; D005333:Fetus / Q000276:immunology*; D005632:Fructose / Q000008:administration & dosage; D006801:Humans; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D007422:Intestines / Q000382:microbiology*; D008875:Middle Aged; D009844:Oligosaccharides / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D011247:Pregnancy; D019936:Probiotics / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D016176:T-Lymphocyte Subsets / Q000276:immunology; D014312:Trisaccharides / Q000008:administration & dosage*
chemical_list: D016207:Cytokines; D009844:Oligosaccharides; D014312:Trisaccharides; D005632:Fructose; C072242:4'-galactooligosaccharide