The immunological basis of glutamatergic disturbance in schizophrenia: towards an integrated view.
This overview presents a hypothesis to bridge the gap between psychoneuroimmunological findings and recent results from pharmacological, neurochemical and genetic studies in schizophrenia. In schizophrenia, a glutamatergic hypofunction is discussed to be crucially involved in dopaminergic dysfunction. This view is supported by findings of the neuregulin- and dysbindin genes, which have functional impact on the glutamatergic system. Glutamatergic hypofunction is mediated by NMDA (N-methyl-D-aspartate) receptor antagonism. The only endogenous NMDA receptor antagonist identified up to now is kynurenic acid (KYN-A). KYN-A also blocks the nicotinergic acetycholine receptor, i.e. increased KYN-A levels can explain psychotic symptoms and cognitive deterioration. KYN-A levels are described to be higher in the CSF and in critical CNS regions of schizophrenics. Another line of evidence suggests that of the immune system in schizophrenic patients is characterized by an imbalance between the type-1 and the type-2 immune responses with a partial inhibition of the type-1 response, while the type-2 response is relatively over-activated. This immune constellation is associated with the inhibition of the enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), because type-2 cytokines are potent inhibitors of IDO. Due to the inhibition of IDO, tryptophan is predominantly metabolized by tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase (TDO), which is located in astrocytes, but not in microglia cells. As indicated by increased levels of S100B, astrocytes are activated in schizophrenia. On the other hand, the kynurenine metabolism in astrocytes is restricted to the dead-end arm of KYN-A production. Accordingly, an increased TDO activity and an accumulation of KYN-A in the CNS of schizophrenics have been described. Thus, the immune-mediated glutamatergic-dopaminergic dysregulation may lead to the clinical symptoms of schizophrenia. Therapeutic consequences, e.g. the use of antiinflammatory cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors, which also are able to directly decrease KYN-A, are discussed.
Miüller
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Hospital for Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany. Norbert.Mueller@med.uni-muenchen.de
Schwarz
M J
MJ
D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal / Q000627:therapeutic use; D001253:Astrocytes / Q000276:immunology; D001921:Brain / Q000276:immunology; D002352:Carrier Proteins / Q000235:genetics; D052246:Cyclooxygenase 2 Inhibitors / Q000627:therapeutic use; D016207:Cytokines / Q000502:physiology; D015232:Dinoprostone / Q000378:metabolism; D004298:Dopamine / Q000502:physiology*; D000074765:Dysbindin; D049029:Dystrophin-Associated Proteins; D005973:Glutamine / Q000502:physiology*; D006801:Humans; D050503:Indoleamine-Pyrrole 2,3,-Dioxygenase / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors; D007736:Kynurenic Acid / Q000134:cerebrospinal fluid; D020880:Neuregulins / Q000235:genetics; D011598:Psychoneuroimmunology; D016194:Receptors, N-Methyl-D-Aspartate / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors; D012559:Schizophrenia / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000235:genetics / Q000276:immunology*; D012565:Schizophrenic Psychology; D014364:Tryptophan / Q000378:metabolism; D014366:Tryptophan Oxygenase / Q000502:physiology
D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal; D002352:Carrier Proteins; D052246:Cyclooxygenase 2 Inhibitors; D016207:Cytokines; C432416:DTNBP1 protein, human; D000074765:Dysbindin; D049029:Dystrophin-Associated Proteins; D050503:Indoleamine-Pyrrole 2,3,-Dioxygenase; D020880:Neuregulins; D016194:Receptors, N-Methyl-D-Aspartate; D005973:Glutamine; D014364:Tryptophan; D014366:Tryptophan Oxygenase; D007736:Kynurenic Acid; D015232:Dinoprostone; D004298:Dopamine