title: Dynamic mechanical properties of intact human cervical spine ligaments.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Most previous studies have investigated ligament mechanical properties at slow elongation rates of less than 25 mm/s.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To determine the tensile mechanical properties, at a fast elongation rate, of intact human cervical anterior and posterior longitudinal, capsular, and interspinous and supraspinous ligaments, middle-third disc, and ligamentum flavum.
  
  
  METHODS
  In vitro biomechanical study.
  
  
  METHODS
  A total of 97 intact bone-ligament-bone specimens (C2-C3 to C7-T1) were prepared from six cervical spines (average age: 80.6 years, range, 71 to 92 years) and were elongated to complete rupture at an average (SD) peak rate of 723 (106) mm/s using a custom-built apparatus. Nonlinear force versus elongation curves were plotted and peak force, peak elongation, peak energy, and stiffness were statistically compared (p<.05) among ligaments. A mathematical model was developed to determine the quasi-static physiological ligament elongation.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Highest average peak force, up to 244.4 and 220.0 N in the ligamentum flavum and capsular ligament, respectively, were significantly greater than in the anterior longitudinal ligament and middle-third disc. Highest peak elongation reached 5.9 mm in the intraspinous and supraspinous ligaments, significantly greater than in the middle-third disc. Highest peak energy of 0.57 J was attained in the capsular ligament, significantly greater than in the anterior longitudinal ligament and middle-third disc. Average stiffness was generally greatest in the ligamentum flavum and least in the intraspinous and supraspinous ligaments. For all ligaments, peak elongation was greater than average physiological elongation computed using the mathematical model.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Comparison of the present results with previously reported data indicated that high-speed elongation may cause cervical ligaments to fail at a higher peak force and smaller peak elongation and they may be stiffer and absorb less energy, as compared with a slow elongation rate. These comparisons may be useful to clinicians for diagnosing cervical ligament injuries based upon the specific trauma.
authors.affiliation: Biomechanics Research Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8071, USA. paul.ivancic@yale.edu
authors.forename: Paul C
authors.initials: PC
authors.lastname: Ivancic
authors.forename: Marcus P
authors.initials: MP
authors.lastname: Coe
authors.forename: Anthony B
authors.initials: AB
authors.lastname: Ndu
authors.forename: Yasuhiro
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Tominaga
authors.forename: Erik J
authors.initials: EJ
authors.lastname: Carlson
authors.forename: Wolfgang
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Rubin
authors.forename: F H
authors.initials: FH
authors.lastname: Dipl-Ing
authors.forename: Manohar M
authors.initials: MM
authors.lastname: Panjabi
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D002574:Cervical Vertebrae / Q000502:physiology*; D006801:Humans; D066298:In Vitro Techniques; D007403:Intervertebral Disc / Q000502:physiology; D017843:Ligamentum Flavum / Q000502:physiology*; D017846:Longitudinal Ligaments / Q000502:physiology*; D010827:Physiology / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods; D013718:Tensile Strength / Q000502:physiology*