title: Big birds and their brains: paleoneurology of the New Zealand moa.
abstract: The moa (Dinornithiformes: Aves) are an extinct group of ratites from the North and South Islands of New Zealand. The ancestors of both the moa and the kiwi were isolated from other Gondwanan fauna as much as 80 million years ago and evolved in the absence of large mammalian predators. As such they represent a natural experiment in the removal of mammalian predation pressure on the encephalization of these two groups of ratites. We have used endocranial and skull morphometry in conjunction with high resolution CT scanning of the skulls of 8 species of moa to assess encephalization and brain morphology in moa and compare these features with extant ratites. Absolute brain size among the moa ranged from 17.0 ml for Euryapteryx curtus to 60.0 ml for female Dinornis giganteus. Values for encephalization quotients (EQ) of moa ranged from 0.205 for Euryapteryx gravis of the southern North Island to a mean (+/- SD) of 0.475 (+/- 0.026) for Anomalopteryx didiformis, partially overlapping values for extant non-New Zealand ratites (emu: 0.402 +/- 0.042; rhea: 0.496 +/- 0.016; ostrich: 0.474 +/- 0.084). Nevertheless, mean +/- SD EQ for all moa examined (0.379 +/- 0.065) was significantly lower than EQ for extant non-New Zealand ratites (0.539 +/- 0.141). Bending of the endocranial axis was much less among moa than either the kiwi or non-New Zealand ratites, consistent with the caudal position of the foramen magnum and the horizontal carriage of the head and upper neck during life. Endocranial morphology of the moa species examined was similar to that for non-New Zealand ratites, with proportionally similar sizes of the olfactory bulb, Wulst, vagal and maxillomandibular foramina, suggesting that the moa occupied similar diurnal niches with comparable sensory specializations to the emu, rhea and ostrich. No evidence of olfactory specialization (i.e., enlarged olfactory bulbs and increased surface area of the olfactory nasal cavity or cribriform plate) was evident in any of the moa skulls, in contrast to the remarkable nasal and olfactory bulb specializations evident in the skull and brain of the little spotted kiwi (Apteryx owenii). We cannot exclude that isolation in the absence of highly encephalized mammalian predators might have contributed to the lower EQ among moa, but it certainly did not lead to any significant reduction in EQ for kiwi; rather the kiwi embarked on a remarkable path of neurological specialization, which allowed them to exploit a niche usually occupied elsewhere by mammals.
authors.affiliation: Department of Anatomy, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia. K.ashwell@unwsw.edu.au
authors.forename: K W S
authors.initials: KW
authors.lastname: Ashwell
authors.forename: R P
authors.initials: RP
authors.lastname: Scofield
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D005075:Biological Evolution; D001921:Brain / Q000033:anatomy & histology; D005260:Female; D049690:History, Ancient; D007091:Image Processing, Computer-Assisted; D008297:Male; D009520:New Zealand; D046108:Palaeognathae / Q000033:anatomy & histology; D010163:Paleontology; D012886:Skull / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging; D014057:Tomography, X-Ray Computed