title: Implementation of genetics to personalize medicine.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  We stand on the verge of integrating individual genetic and genomic information into health care provision and maintenance to improve health, increase efficiency, and decrease costs. We are beginning to integrate information on inherited susceptibility, gene expression, and predicted pharmacogenomic response to refine our medical management.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  This article reviews the current utility of genetics and genomics in a wide array of clinical circumstances, considers the future applications, and defines some of the obstacles and potential solutions to clinical integration of genomic medicine.
  
  
  METHODS
  Using the search terms genetics, genomics, pharmacogenomics, newborn screening, long QT syndrome, BRCA1/BRCA2, maturity onset diabetes of youth, diabetes, hemochromatosis, coronary artery disease, copy number changes, genetic discrimination, and genetic education, the PubMed database was searched from January 2000 to March 2007 to identify pertinent articles. Search results were restricted to English-language and human studies.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Several areas of medicine have begun to incorporate genetics into clinical practice, including newborn screening and breast cancer risk stratification and treatment. Molecular genetic tests are, and will increasingly become, available for inherited arrhythmias, diabetes, cancer, coronary artery disease, and pharmacogenomics. However, there are many barriers to implementation, including the cost of testing, the genetic literacy of patients and health care providers, and concerns about genetic discrimination.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Genetics and genomics will be increasingly utilized in every field of medicine; however, health care providers and patients must have realistic expectations about its predictive power and current limitations.
authors.affiliation: Division of Molecular Genetics, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, USA. wkc15@columbia.edu
authors.forename: Wendy K
authors.initials: WK
authors.lastname: Chung
mesh_terms: D035843:Biomedical Research / Q000458:organization & administration; D001709:Biotechnology / Q000191:economics / Q000379:methods*; D005544:Forecasting; D005820:Genetic Testing / Q000191:economics / Q000379:methods* / Q000639:trends; D014644:Genetic Variation; D007722:Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice; D006801:Humans; D025202:Molecular Diagnostic Techniques / Q000191:economics / Q000379:methods*; D009369:Neoplasms / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000235:genetics*; D010597:Pharmacogenetics / Q000191:economics / Q000379:methods* / Q000639:trends; D014481:United States