title: Late EEG responses triggered by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in the evaluation of focal epilepsy.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To evaluate the use of EEG responses to transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS-EEG responses) as a noninvasive tool for the diagnosis of focal epilepsy.
  
  
  METHODS
  Fifteen patients and 15 healthy subjects were studied. TMS at an intensity set at resting corticomotor threshold were delivered at the standard EEG electrode positions. For each position, EEG responses to TMS were evaluated before and after averaging EEG recordings synchronized with the TMS pulse.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Two types of TMS-EEG responses were seen: (A) early responses: consisting of a single slow wave seen after the TMS pulse; and (B) late TMS-EEG responses, which were subclassified into (b.1) delayed responses: waveforms resembling interictal epileptiform discharges induced by TMS; or (b.2) repetitive responses: onset of a new rhythym induced by TMS. Early responses were observed in patients and healthy subjects when stimulating at various sites and were considered normal responses to TMS. Late TMS-EEG responses were not seen in healthy subjects, whereas they were seen in 11 of the 15 epileptic patients. Late TMS-EEG responses occurred when stimulating the epileptogenic side in eight out of the nine patients who had lateralized late TMS-EEG responses. The combined use of late TMS-EEG responses and interictal scalp EEG would have suggested the diagnosis of focal epilepsy in all patients, despite the absence of late TMS-EEG responses in four patients and the presence of normal interictal scalp EEG in three.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  TMS-EEG responses can identify epileptogenic cortex and may substantially improve the diagnosis of focal epilepsy, particularly, if combined with standard EEG studies.
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Antonio
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Valentin
authors.forename: Ramamurthy
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Arunachalam
authors.forename: Arvin
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Mesquita-Rodrigues
authors.forename: Jorge J
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: Garcia Seoane
authors.forename: Mark P
authors.initials: MP
authors.lastname: Richardson
authors.forename: Kerry R
authors.initials: KR
authors.lastname: Mills
authors.forename: Gonzalo
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Alarcon
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D001931:Brain Mapping / Q000379:methods*; D002540:Cerebral Cortex / Q000503:physiopathology*; D035061:Control Groups; D004567:Electrodes, Implanted; D004569:Electroencephalography / Q000379:methods / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D004828:Epilepsies, Partial / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000503:physiopathology*; D005260:Female; D005625:Frontal Lobe / Q000503:physiopathology; D007839:Functional Laterality / Q000502:physiology; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D008991:Monitoring, Physiologic / Q000379:methods / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D017397:Prefrontal Cortex / Q000503:physiopathology; D011300:Preoperative Care / Q000379:methods; D050781:Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation / Q000379:methods / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*