title: Emergence and trends of penicillin non-susceptible Streptococcus pneumoniae in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait - perspective and outstanding issues.
abstract: For many years in the past Streptococcus pneumoniae was uniformly susceptible to penicillin until the sudden and unexpected emergence of clinical infections caused by penicillin-resistant S. pneumoniae (PRSP) in 1967. Within the following decade, reports of nosocomial and community outbreaks of infections due to PRSP became widespread all over the world. Recent reports suggest that the incidence of resistance rates is rising in many countries although there are geographical variations in the prevalence and patterns of resistance between countries. The problem of antibiotic resistance is further compounded by the emergence of resistance to many beta-lactam antibiotics. The first report of PRSP in Saudi Arabia was in 1991. Barely a year after, PRSP infection was reported in Kuwait in 1992. Since then, studies from various parts of these countries have recorded prevalence rates ranging from 6.2% in Riyadh to 34% in Jeddah and 20% to 56% in neighboring Kuwait. These suggest considerable variation in the prevalence of PRSP in different cities in the Saudi Kingdom and Kuwait. The mechanism of resistance is due to chromosomally mediated alteration of penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), which are target sites for beta-lactam antibiotics. It would appear that the spread of PRSP strains in Saudi Arabia is driven by the selective pressure created by excessive use and misuse of antimicrobial agents made possible by the easy availability of these agents, often frequently obtainable over the counter. In Kuwait, irrational and misguided use of antibiotics may be the major driving force favoring the spread of PRSP. The serotypes of strains encountered in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait are almost identical, with serotypes 19, 6, 15, 14 and 23 being the most common; together they constitute about 70% of the isolates circulating in these countries. In general, almost 90% of the serotypes included in the 23-polyvalent vaccine are present in the general population. However, a much lower percentage of these serotypes is found in the conjugated vaccines, which are more relevant to our communities. This paper reviews the emergence and the steady increase in the prevalence of penicillin-resistant pneumococcal strains in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait during the last 10 years. It discusses the trends, mechanisms of resistance and factors associated with the emergence, dissemination, and colonization of resistant organisms and suggests options available to clinicians for management of infections due to PRSP.
authors: Department of Infectious Prevention and Control, King Abdulaziz Medical City, King Fahad National Guard Hospital, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. memish@ngha.med.sa
authors: Z A
authors: ZA
authors: Memish
authors: A O
authors: AO
authors: Osoba
authors: A M
authors: AM
authors: Shibl
authors: E
authors: E
authors: Mokaddas
authors: S
authors: S
authors: Venkatesh
authors: V O
authors: VO
authors: Rotimi
mesh_terms: D006801:Humans; D007730:Kuwait / Q000453:epidemiology; D010403:Penicillin Resistance; D015995:Prevalence; D012529:Saudi Arabia / Q000453:epidemiology; D013296:Streptococcus pneumoniae / Q000187:drug effects