title: Stiffness regulation and muscle-recruitment strategies of the shoulder in response to external rotation perturbations.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The complex interactions between capsuloligamentous structures and muscle-recruitment strategies that maintain glenohumeral stability remain unclear. The purposes of the present study were to determine whether stiffness regulation and muscle-activation strategies differed under varying joint positions and levels of contraction in the shoulder and to determine the relationship between generalized joint laxity, glenohumeral joint laxity, and joint stiffness.
  
  
  METHODS
  Forty healthy, physically active subjects with a mean age (and standard deviation) of 25.2 +/- 4.6 years, a mean height of 174.7 +/- 6.7 cm, and a mean mass of 73.1 +/- 13.8 kg were tested. Shoulder stiffness and the activation of muscles (including the rotator cuff and the anterior deltoid) were measured at two levels of internal rotation torque (0% and 50% of maximum) and two joint positions (0 degrees and 90% of maximum external rotation) before and after a 5 degrees external rotation perturbation. Generalized laxity and glenohumeral joint laxity (in the anterior, posterior, and inferior directions) were also assessed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Stiffness was 77% greater at 50% of maximum internal rotation torque than at 0% of maximum internal rotation torque (p < 0.001) but was not significantly different between joint positions (p = 0.73). From 0% to 50% of maximum internal rotation torque, preparatory and reactive recruitment of the subscapularis increased significantly more (p < 0.05) than those of the other muscles. Also, subscapularis preparatory activity was 36% greater in 0 degrees of external rotation than in 90% of maximum external rotation (p < 0.01). Generalized joint laxity (as indicated by a score of >/=4) was present in 20% of the subjects. Glenohumeral joint laxity (as indicated by a grade of >/=2) was present in the anterior, posterior, and inferior directions in 13%, 15%, and 15% of the subjects, respectively. No correlation existed between passive stiffness and generalized or glenohumeral laxity (r = -0.12 to 0.29; p = 0.08 to 0.48).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Moderate levels of muscle contraction can significantly increase glenohumeral joint stiffness and stability. Preactivation of the subscapularis appears to be the primary dynamic stabilizer with the arm in 0 degrees of external rotation. However, with the arm in 90% of maximum external rotation (the apprehension position), less subscapularis activity is observed and the maintenance of stability may shift toward other musculoskeletal structures because joint stiffness does not change. A relationship between generalized joint laxity, glenohumeral laxity, and stiffness was not observed in healthy subjects.
authors.affiliation: Athletic Training Department, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, IN 47809, USA. khuxel@isugw.indstate.edu
authors.forename: Kellie C
authors.initials: KC
authors.lastname: Huxel
authors.forename: C Buz
authors.initials: CB
authors.lastname: Swanik
authors.forename: Kathleen A
authors.initials: KA
authors.lastname: Swanik
authors.forename: Arthur R
authors.initials: AR
authors.lastname: Bartolozzi
authors.forename: Howard J
authors.initials: HJ
authors.lastname: Hillstrom
authors.forename: Michael R
authors.initials: MR
authors.lastname: Sitler
authors.forename: Dani M
authors.initials: DM
authors.lastname: Moffit
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D015331:Cohort Studies; D004576:Electromyography; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007593:Joint Instability / Q000209:etiology / Q000503:physiopathology*; D008297:Male; D009119:Muscle Contraction / Q000502:physiology*; D009127:Muscle Rigidity / Q000503:physiopathology*; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000502:physiology; D011336:Probability; D016059:Range of Motion, Articular / Q000502:physiology*; D012016:Reference Values; D012307:Risk Factors; D012399:Rotation; D017006:Rotator Cuff / Q000502:physiology*; D012785:Shoulder Joint / Q000502:physiology