Inhalation anaesthesia: from diethyl ether to xenon.
Modern anaesthesia is said to have began with the successful demonstration of ether anaesthesia by William Morton in October 1846, even though anaesthesia with nitrous oxide had been used in dentistry 2 years before. Anaesthesia with ether, nitrous oxide and chloroform (introduced in 1847) rapidly became commonplace for surgery. Of these, only nitrous oxide remains in use today. All modern volatile anaesthetics, with the exception of halothane (a fluorinated alkane), are halogenated methyl ethyl ethers. Methyl ethyl ethers are more potent, stable and better anaesthetics than diethyl ethers. They all cause myocardial depression, most markedly halothane, while isoflurane and sevoflurane cause minimal cardiovascular depression. The halogenated ethers also depress the normal respiratory response to carbon dioxide and to hypoxia. Other adverse effects include hepatic and renal damage. Hepatitis occurs most frequently with halothane, although rare cases have been reported with the other agents. Liver damage is not caused by the anaesthetics themselves, but by reactive metabolites. Type I hepatitis occurs fairly commonly and takes the form of a minor disturbance of liver enzymes, which usually resolves without treatment. Type II, thought to be immune-mediated, is rare, unpredictable and results in a severe fulminant hepatitis with a high mortality. Renal damage is rare, and was most often associated with methoxyflurane because of excessive plasma fluoride concentrations resulting from its metabolism. Methoxyflurane was withdrawn from the market because of the high incidence of nephrotoxicity. Among the contemporary anaesthetics, the highest fluoride concentrations have been reported with sevoflurane, but there are no reports of renal dysfunction associated with its use. Recently there has been a renewed interest in xenon, one of the noble gases. Xenon has many of the properties of an ideal anaesthetic. The major factor limiting its more widespread is the high cost, about 2,000 times the cost of nitrous oxide.
Bovill
J G
JG
Department of Anaesthesiology, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands. j.g.bovill@lumc.nl
D000769:Anesthesia, Inhalation / Q000266:history / Q000639:trends; D018685:Anesthetics, Inhalation / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000737:chemistry / Q000266:history / Q000494:pharmacology*; D000818:Animals; D002248:Carbon Monoxide / Q000737:chemistry; D003243:Consciousness / Q000187:drug effects*; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D004986:Ether / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000737:chemistry / Q000494:pharmacology*; D049672:History, 19th Century; D049673:History, 20th Century; D049674:History, 21st Century; D006801:Humans; D007262:Infusions, Intravenous; D015394:Molecular Structure; D013329:Structure-Activity Relationship; D014978:Xenon / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000737:chemistry / Q000494:pharmacology*
D018685:Anesthetics, Inhalation; D004986:Ether; D014978:Xenon; D002248:Carbon Monoxide