title: Fish consumption is a safe solution to increase the intake of long-chain n-3 fatty acids.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Dietary intake of long-chain (LC) n-3 PUFA in developed countries is low compared with recommendations. Fish is naturally rich in LC n-3 PUFA, but is also a dietary source of heavy metals and organic pollutants. We investigated whether the recommendation for LC n-3 PUFA could be reached through fish consumption, without exceeding the provisional tolerable weekly intake of methylmercury (MeHg) and the tolerable weekly intake (TWI) of dioxin-like compounds. Also, the contribution of margarines enriched with LC n-3 PUFA was assessed.
  
  
  METHODS
  Published nutrient and contaminant data were used in a probabilistic model to calculate the simultaneous nutrient and contaminant intake for different fish consumption scenarios.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The Belgian recommendation for EPA + DHA (0.3% of total energy intake) can be reached by consuming fatty fish a minimum of twice a week, or by varying between lean and fatty fish a minimum of three times a week. At this fish consumption level, MeHg intake is not an issue of toxicological concern. The intake of dioxin-like compounds approximates the TWI when consuming fatty fish more than twice a week, this being a potential toxicological risk because other food items also contribute to the weekly intake of dioxin-like compounds. Use of margarine enriched with LC n-3 PUFA can help to increase LC n-3 intake, on average by 159 mg/d.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Combination of regular fish consumption (twice a week) with important contribution of fatty fish species, in combination with regular consumption of margarine enriched with EPA + DHA, can be advised to achieve the recommendation for LC n-3 intake.
authors.affiliation: Department of Public Health, Ghent University, UZ 2 Blok A, De Pintelaan 185, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium. Isabelle.Sioen@UGent.be
authors.forename: Isabelle
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Sioen
authors.forename: Stefaan
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: De Henauw
authors.forename: Wim
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Verbeke
authors.forename: Frederik
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Verdonck
authors.forename: Jan L
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Willems
authors.forename: John
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Van Camp
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001530:Belgium; D003257:Consumer Product Safety; D004147:Dioxins / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity*; D004785:Environmental Pollutants / Q000032:analysis; D015525:Fatty Acids, Omega-3 / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D005399:Fishes / Q000378:metabolism; D005506:Food Contamination / Q000032:analysis*; D005527:Food, Fortified; D006801:Humans; D008383:Margarine / Q000032:analysis; D008767:Methylmercury Compounds / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000032:analysis / Q000633:toxicity*; D009751:Nutritional Requirements; D018570:Risk Assessment; D012307:Risk Factors; D017747:Seafood / Q000032:analysis*; D013045:Species Specificity
chemical_list: D004147:Dioxins; D004785:Environmental Pollutants; D015525:Fatty Acids, Omega-3; D008767:Methylmercury Compounds; D008383:Margarine