title: Clinical presentation and outcome of tuberculosis in human immunodeficiency virus infected children on anti-retroviral therapy.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The tuberculosis (TB) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemics are poorly controlled in sub-Saharan Africa, where highly active antiretroviral treatment (HAART) has become more freely available. Little is known about the clinical presentation and outcome of TB in HIV-infected children on HAART.
  
  
  METHODS
  We performed a comprehensive file review of all children who commenced HAART at Tygerberg Children's Hospital from January 2003 through December 2005.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Data from 290 children were analyzed; 137 TB episodes were recorded in 136 children; 116 episodes occurred before and 21 after HAART initiation; 10 episodes were probably related to immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS). The number of TB cases per 100 patient years were 53.3 during the 9 months prior to HAART initiation, and 6.4 during post HAART follow-up [odds ratio (OR) 16.6; 95% confidence interval (CI) 12.5-22.4]. A positive outcome was achieved in 97/137 (71%) episodes, 6 (4%) cases experienced no improvement, 16 (12%) died and the outcome could not be established in 18 (13%). Mortality was less in children on HAART (1/21; 4.8%) compared to those not on HAART (15/116; 12.9%).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We recorded an extremely high incidence of TB among HIV-infected children, especially prior to HAART initiation. Starting HAART at an earlier stage is likely to reduce morbidity and mortality related to TB, particularly in TB-endemic areas. Management frequently deviated from standard guidelines, but outcomes in general were good.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pediatrics and Child Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa. walters@tiscali.co.za
authors.forename: Elisabetta
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Walters
authors.forename: Mark F
authors.initials: MF
authors.lastname: Cotton
authors.forename: Helena
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Rabie
authors.forename: H Simon
authors.initials: HS
authors.lastname: Schaaf
authors.forename: Lourens O
authors.initials: LO
authors.lastname: Walters
authors.forename: Ben J
authors.initials: BJ
authors.lastname: Marais
mesh_terms: D023241:Antiretroviral Therapy, Highly Active / Q000009:adverse effects; D000995:Antitubercular Agents / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000627:therapeutic use; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D015897:Comorbidity; D019353:Endemic Diseases; D005260:Female; D015658:HIV Infections / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000453:epidemiology*; D006801:Humans; D015994:Incidence; D007223:Infant; D008297:Male; D012189:Retrospective Studies; D016896:Treatment Outcome; D014397:Tuberculosis, Pulmonary / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000453:epidemiology*
chemical_list: D000995:Antitubercular Agents