title: Treatment of Clostridium difficile infection.
abstract: Recent outbreaks of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) in North America have been due to a more virulent, possibly more resistant strain that causes more-severe disease, making prompt recognition of cases and optimal management of infection essential for a successful therapeutic outcome. Treatment algorithms are presented to help guide the management of patients with CDI. Metronidazole has been recommended as initial therapy since the late 1990s and continues to be the first choice for all but seriously ill patients and those with complicated or fulminant infections or multiple recurrences of CDI, for whom vancomycin is recommended. Other options for recurrent CDI, such as probiotics and currently available anion-exchange resins, have limited efficacy and are potentially harmful. Intravenous immunoglobulin may benefit patients with refractory, recurrent, or severe disease, but no controlled data are available. Two antimicrobials available in the United States for other indications, nitazoxanide and rifaximin, have been used successfully for CDI treatment but, like metronidazole, lack United States Food and Drug Administration approval for this indication. Experimental treatments currently in clinical development include a toxin-binding polymer, tolevamer; 2 poorly absorbed antimicrobials, OPT-80 (formerly known as Difimicin) and ramoplanin; monoclonal antibodies; and a C. difficile vaccine.
authors.affiliation: Hines Veterans Affairs Hospital, Hines, IL 60141, USA. dale.gerding2@va.gov
authors.forename: Dale N
authors.initials: DN
authors.lastname: Gerding
authors.forename: Carlene A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Muto
authors.forename: Robert C
authors.initials: RC
authors.lastname: Owens
mesh_terms: D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D016360:Clostridioides difficile / Q000235:genetics / Q000472:pathogenicity*; D019468:Disease Management; D004761:Enterocolitis, Pseudomembranous / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000382:microbiology; D006801:Humans; D008795:Metronidazole / Q000627:therapeutic use; D009656:North America; D012008:Recurrence; D035703:Therapies, Investigational; D014640:Vancomycin / Q000627:therapeutic use
chemical_list: D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents; D008795:Metronidazole; D014640:Vancomycin