title: The degradation of the herbicide bromoxynil and its impact on bacterial diversity in a top soil.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To study how repeated applications of an herbicide bromoxynil to a soil, mimicking the regime used in the field, affected the degradation of the compound and whether such affects were reflected by changes in the indigenous bacterial community present.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Bromoxynil degradation was monitored in soil microcosms using HPLC. Its impact on the bacterial community was determined using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) and quantitative PCR of five bacterial taxa (Pseudomonads, Actinobacteria, alpha-Proteobacteria, Acidobacteria and nitrifying bacteria). Three applications of 10 mg kg(-1) of bromoxynil at 28-day intervals resulted in rapid degradation, the time for removal of 50% of the compound decreasing from 6.4 days on the first application to 4.9 days by the third. Bacterial population profiles showed significant similarity throughout the experiment. With the addition of 50 mg kg(-1) bromoxynil to soil, the degradation was preceded by a lag phase and the time for 50% of the compound to be degraded increased from 7 days to 28 days by the third application. The bacterial population showed significant differences 7 days after the final application of bromoxynil that correlated with an inhibition of degradation during the same period.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These analyses highlighted that the addition of bromoxynil gave rise to significant shifts in the community diversity and its structure as measured by four abundant taxa, when compared with the control microcosm. These changes persisted even after bromoxynil had been degraded.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Here we show that bromoxynil can exert an inhibitory effect on the bacterial population that results in decreased rates of degradation and increased persistence of the compound. In addition, we demonstrate that molecular approaches can identify statistically significant changes in microbial communities that occur in conjunction with changes in the rate of degradation of the compound in the soil.
authors.affiliation: School of Applied Sciences, University of Northumbria, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK.
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Baxter
authors.forename: S P
authors.initials: SP
authors.lastname: Cummings
mesh_terms: D001419:Bacteria / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000235:genetics; D001673:Biodegradation, Environmental; D044822:Biodiversity; D017931:DNA Primers / Q000235:genetics; D004591:Electrophoresis, Polyacrylamide Gel; D004784:Environmental Monitoring / Q000379:methods; D006540:Herbicides / Q000633:toxicity*; D009570:Nitriles / Q000633:toxicity*; D012336:RNA, Ribosomal, 16S / Q000032:analysis; D020133:Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction / Q000379:methods; D012988:Soil Microbiology
chemical_list: D017931:DNA Primers; D006540:Herbicides; D009570:Nitriles; D012336:RNA, Ribosomal, 16S; C006826:bromoxynil