title: Panic disorder: the psychobiology of external treat and introceptive distress.
abstract: Panic disorder seems to be mediated by the neuronal circuitry and neurochemical systems that have evolved to respond to external threatening stimuli. Distant threats activate prefrontal cortex (involved in complex planning of avoidance strategies), while immediate threats activate midbrain structures (involved in fast reflexive behaviors). Panic disorder may, however, also involve more specific interoceptive mechanisms. For example, the association between respiratory dysfunction and panic disorder has bolstered a false suffocation alarm hypothesis. Genetic and environmental contributors to panic disorder are beginning to be delineated. Effective pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy are able to normalize the relevant psychobiology.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, University of Cape Town, South Africa.
authors.forename: Dan J
authors.initials: DJ
authors.lastname: Stein
mesh_terms: D001143:Arousal / Q000502:physiology*; D001237:Asphyxia / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000523:psychology; D001921:Brain / Q000503:physiopathology*; D001931:Brain Mapping; D002245:Carbon Dioxide / Q000097:blood; D039721:Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders; D005239:Fear / Q000502:physiology; D006801:Humans; D007389:Internal-External Control; D010100:Oxygen / Q000097:blood; D016584:Panic Disorder / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000523:psychology; D049268:Positron-Emission Tomography
chemical_list: D002245:Carbon Dioxide; D010100:Oxygen