Automatic cephalometric analysis.
OBJECTIVE
To describe the techniques used for automatic landmarking of cephalograms, highlighting the strengths and weaknesses of each one and reviewing the percentage of success in locating each cephalometric point.


METHODS
The literature survey was performed by searching the Medline, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, and the ISI Web of Science Citation Index databases. The survey covered the period from January 1966 to August 2006. Abstracts that appeared to fulfill the initial selection criteria were selected by consensus. The original articles were then retrieved. Their references were also hand-searched for possible missing articles. The search strategy resulted in 118 articles of which eight met the inclusion criteria. Many articles were rejected for different reasons; among these, the most frequent was that results of accuracy for automatic landmark recognition were presented as a percentage of success.


RESULTS
A marked difference in results was found between the included studies consisting of heterogeneity in the performance of techniques to detect the same landmark. All in all, hybrid approaches detected cephalometric points with a higher accuracy in contrast to the results for the same points obtained by the model-based, image filtering plus knowledge-based landmark search and "soft-computing" approaches.


CONCLUSIONS
The systems described in the literature are not accurate enough to allow their use for clinical purposes. Errors in landmark detection were greater than those expected with manual tracing and, therefore, the scientific evidence supporting the use of automatic landmarking is low.
Leonardi
Rosalia
R
Department of Orthodontics, University of Catania, University of Catania, Catania, Italy. rleonard@unict.it
Giordano
Daniela
D
Maiorana
Francesco
F
Spampinato
Concetto
C
D001185:Artificial Intelligence; D002508:Cephalometry / Q000379:methods* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D005147:Facial Bones / Q000033:anatomy & histology; D006801:Humans; D007091:Image Processing, Computer-Assisted / Q000379:methods* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D051188:Knowledge Bases; D010363:Pattern Recognition, Automated / Q000379:methods / Q000706:statistics & numerical data