title: The aging cardiomyocyte: a mini-review.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Aging per se is a risk factor for reduced cardiac function and heart diseases, even when adjusted for aging-associated cardiovascular risk factors. Accordingly, aging-related biochemical and cell-biological changes lead to pathophysiological conditions, especially reduced heart function and heart disease.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  In this review, we summarize the changes that occur as the heart ages from youth to old age on the basis of the cardiac myocyte. Aging phenotypes and underlying mechanisms shall be discussed that affect cardiomyocyte repair, signaling, structure, and function.
  
  
  METHODS
  Review of the literature.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The following factors play vital roles in the aging of cardiomyocytes: oxidative stress, inflammation, cellular protection and repair, telomere integrity, survival and death, metabolism, post-translational modifications, and altered gene expression. Importantly, non-cardiomyocyte-based aging processes (vascular, fibroblast, extracellular matrix, etc.) in the heart will interfere with cardiomyocyte aging and cardiac function.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Based on our analyses, we postulate that the physiological aging process of the heart and of the cardiomyocyte is primarily driven by intrinsic aging factors. However, extrinsic aging factors, e.g. smoking, also make an important contribution to pathologically accelerated aging of the heart.
authors.affiliation: Cardiac Surgery Research Laboratory, Department of Cardiac Surgery, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria. david.bernhard@i-med.ac.at
authors.forename: D
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Bernhard
authors.forename: G
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Laufer
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D000375:Aging / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D006321:Heart / Q000502:physiology* / Q000503:physiopathology; D006331:Heart Diseases / Q000097:blood / Q000453:epidemiology; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D032383:Myocytes, Cardiac / Q000502:physiology*; D018384:Oxidative Stress / Q000235:genetics; D012307:Risk Factors