title: [Influence of the Nuremberg physicians' trials--beginning a new era in the ethical judging of human experiments].
abstract: This short historical review attempts to shed light on the tortuous road on which society moved toward the general acceptance of the idea of experimenting on human beings. Unfortunately people had to realize that under antihuman or lenient political leadership, some physicians might apply their knowledge against their fellow beings, or might endanger them while pursuing their scientific goals. For this reason, it became necessary to codify the ethical requirements of medical experiments. This was done first by the Prussian government in 1900. The historical significance of the Nuremberg physicians' trials is that, by recognizing the enormous scientific importance of human experiments, they led to the formulation of general ethical principles governing human studies, which became known as the Nuremberg Code. Broad, international regulations were developed as the consequence of the trial. Unfortunately human experiments performed on prison inmates were judged at the trial as ethically acceptable, provided an informed consent was signed. Misusing this possibility many unethical experiments were done primarily in the US after the war. The great indignation due to ethical misconduct in prison trials and the highly unethical Tuskegee experiments performed on black Americans' suffering from syphilis, led much later to the organization of independent ethics committees. Through these committees, society exercises supervision of human trials. However, in case of severely ill patients the physician might be left alone to make a quick, and ethically correct, decision corresponding to the situation. In the final analysis the safety and ethical protection of research subjects remain the joint responsibility of society and of the experimenting physicians.
authors.affiliation: Semmelweis Egyetem, Altalános Orvostudományi Kar, Farmakológiai és Farmakoterápiás Intézet Budapest Pf. 370 1445.
authors.forename: Sándor
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Kerpel-Fronius
mesh_terms: D001741:Black or African American; D002986:Clinical Trials as Topic / Q000941:ethics; D032781:Codes of Ethics; D028744:Ethics Committees, Research; D004992:Ethics, Medical; D032984:Ethics, Research; D005858:Germany; D049673:History, 20th Century; D006805:Human Experimentation / Q000941:ethics / Q000266:history / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence; D006801:Humans; D007258:Informed Consent / Q000941:ethics / Q000266:history / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence; D028683:National Socialism; D010820:Physicians / Q000941:ethics* / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence*; D011329:Prisoners; D013587:Syphilis; D014481:United States; D014858:War Crimes