title: Atomizing into a chilled extraction solvent eliminates liquid gas from a spray-freeze drying microencapsulation process.
abstract: A spray-freeze drying encapsulation process using direct atomization into a chilled extraction solvent (ACES), in the absence of liquefied gas, was developed. Heat transfer models, developed to estimate droplet freezing time (t(f)), identified ACES conditions where solvent extraction, nonsolvent influx, and droplet deformation were minimized. Calculated t(f)'s for dichloromethane and dichloroethane droplets were 98 and 46 ms, respectively, using atomization into liquid nitrogen (ALN2). For droplets <100 microm, this was shorter than the calculated headspace residence time, indicating freezing precedes cryogen impact. Calculated t(f)'s for ACES ranged from 9 to 36 ms. The longest t(f)'s resulted in collapsed, asymmetric particles with phase-separated cores and high nonsolvent residuals (>10%). Intermediate t(f)'s produced spherical-cap particles with rough exteriors and a mixture of solid and phase-separated structures. The shortest t(f)'s produced smooth, spherical-cap particles with solid cores, resembling particles made by ALN2; residual solvent levels were similar or superior to those with ALN2. Phase separation within droplets, induced upon extraction solvent contact in ACES, was minimized for cases where t(f) <or= 12 ms, corresponding to Stefan numbers (Ste) >or=1.3. These results, obtained with cryogen temperatures up to -122 degrees C, demonstrate encapsulation by ACES is possible if freezing is sufficiently rapid, enabling milder operating temperatures.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmaceutics, Amgen Inc., MS 8-2-D, Thousand Oaks, California 91320, USA.
authors.forename: Michael T
authors.initials: MT
authors.lastname: Kennedy
authors.forename: Alana
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Ali-Reynolds
authors.forename: Christina
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Farrier
authors.forename: Paul A
authors.initials: PA
authors.lastname: Burke
mesh_terms: D004339:Drug Compounding; D005612:Freeze Drying; D008855:Microscopy, Electron, Scanning; D008962:Models, Theoretical; D010316:Particle Size; D012997:Solvents / Q000737:chemistry*; D013500:Surface Tension; D014783:Viscosity
chemical_list: D012997:Solvents