title: Menopause, hormone therapy and cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death and morbidity among postmenopausal women, and oestrogen deficiency may be an important factor in its development. The role of oestrogen replacement in preventing cardiovascular disease is controversial. The aim of this descriptive review is to analyse the available data and to recommend evidence-based practice guidelines pertaining to hormone therapy in the context of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular health.
  
  
  METHODS
  Relevant clinical trials were identified by computerised literature search. The collated data were presented to fellow gynaecologists for review, analysis of results and discussion in a series of meetings dedicated to finding the best evidence in menopause management. The evidence was used to formulate clinical practice guidelines for the management of women with significant cardiovascular risk factors.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Evidence from animal studies and observational trials supported a cardio-protective effect of postmenopausal hormone therapy. More recent randomised clinical trial data have shown no significant reduction of coronary heart disease, and have confirmed a higher incidence of stroke and venous thromboembolism.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The evidence is widely divergent regarding postmenopausal hormone therapy and cardiovascular risk. More consistent data are available reporting an increased risk in the incidence of venous thromboembolism and stroke. It is important to be clear about the indications of hormone use and to utilise alternative modalities to promote cardiovascular health in the postmenopausal population.
authors.affiliation: Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, National University Hospital, Singapore.
authors.forename: Citra Nurfarah
authors.initials: CN
authors.lastname: Mattar
authors.forename: Lubna
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Harharah
authors.forename: Lin Lin
authors.initials: LL
authors.lastname: Su
authors.forename: Anupriya Aditya
authors.initials: AA
authors.lastname: Agarwal
authors.forename: P C
authors.initials: PC
authors.lastname: Wong
authors.forename: Mahesh
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Choolani
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D002318:Cardiovascular Diseases / Q000517:prevention & control*; D002561:Cerebrovascular Disorders / Q000517:prevention & control*; D004967:Estrogens / Q000172:deficiency / Q000378:metabolism; D005260:Female; D020249:Hormone Replacement Therapy; D006801:Humans; D008593:Menopause; D008875:Middle Aged; D017410:Practice Guidelines as Topic
chemical_list: D004967:Estrogens