title: Fluid and volume monitoring.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Fluid resuscitation is not only used to prevent acute kidney injury (AKI) but fluid management is also a cornerstone of treatment for patients with established AKI and renal failure. Ultrafiltration removes volume initially from the intravascular compartment inducing a relative degree of hypovolemia. Normal reflex mechanisms attempt to sustain blood pressure constant despite marked changes in blood volume and cardiac output. Thus, compensated shock with a normal blood pressure is a major cause of AKI or exacerbations of AKI during ultrafiltration.
  
  
  METHODS
  We undertook a systematic review of the literature using MEDLINE, Google Scholar and PubMed searches. We determined a list of key questions and convened a 2-day consensus conference to develop summary statements via a series of alternating breakout and plenary sessions. In these sessions, we identified supporting evidence and generated clinical practice recommendations and/or directions for future research.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We defined three aspects of fluid monitoring: i) normal and pathophysiological cardiovascular mechanisms; ii) measures of volume responsiveness and impending cardiovascular collapse during volume removal, and; iii) measured indices of each using non-invasive and minimally invasive continuous and intermittent monitoring techniques. The evidence documents that AKI can occur in the setting of normotensive hypovolemia and that under-resuscitation represents a major cause of both AKI and mortality ion critically ill patients. Traditional measures of intravascular volume and ventricular filling do not predict volume responsiveness whereas dynamic functional hemodynamic markers, such as pulse pressure or stroke volume variation during positive pressure breathing or mean flow changes with passive leg raising are highly predictive of volume responsiveness. Numerous commercially-available devices exist that can acquire these signals.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Prospective clinical trials using functional hemodynamic markers in the diagnosis and management of AKI and volume status during ultrafiltration need to be performed. More traditional measure of preload be abandoned as marked of volume responsiveness though still useful to assess overall volume status.
authors.affiliation: Critical Care Medicine, Bioengineering, Cardiovascular Diseases and Anesthesiology, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA. pinskymr@upmc.edu
authors.forename: M R
authors.initials: MR
authors.lastname: Pinsky
authors.forename: P
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Brophy
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Padilla
authors.forename: E
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Paganini
authors.forename: N
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Pannu
mesh_terms: D058186:Acute Kidney Injury / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000628:therapy*; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000032:analysis; D001810:Blood Volume; D006328:Cardiac Catheterization; D002319:Cardiovascular System / Q000503:physiopathology; D003404:Creatinine / Q000097:blood; D016638:Critical Illness; D055316:Cystatin C; D015891:Cystatins / Q000097:blood; D005440:Fluid Therapy; D006439:Hemodynamics; D006801:Humans; D007677:Kidney Function Tests; D008991:Monitoring, Physiologic; D010100:Oxygen / Q000097:blood; D017582:Renal Replacement Therapy; D012151:Resuscitation; D012769:Shock / Q000503:physiopathology; D012772:Shock, Septic / Q000628:therapy; D014462:Ultrafiltration; D014508:Urea / Q000652:urine; D016482:Urinalysis
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; C525030:CST3 protein, human; D055316:Cystatin C; D015891:Cystatins; D014508:Urea; D003404:Creatinine; D010100:Oxygen