title: Trauma, PTSD and personality: the relationship between prolonged traumatization and personality impairments.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been associated with personality impairments involving externalized and internalized psychopathology. This study has explored the association between PTSD symptoms as consequences of prolonged torture experiences or early childhood trauma exposure and personality traits.
  
  
  METHODS
  One hundred and sixty-one men were included: 36 Iraqi men refugees (mean age = 43.9, SD = 8.7) who had longstanding torture experiences as adults; 42 Swedish prisoners (mean age = 33.8, SD = 7), with early childhood trauma exposure; 31 Arab men refugees (mean age = 41.8, SD = 8.9) without self-reported torture or violence experiences; 52 non-traumatized Swedish males (mean age = 39.3, SD = 5.5). They were assessed for symptoms of PTSD or PTSD hypothetical clusters. Personality profile was assessed by the Karolinska Scales of Personality (KSP). Factor analysis with varimax rotation was conducted and yielded three factors: externalized, internalized and avoidance domains.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Individuals who suffered prolonged torture experiences or had early childhood trauma exposure showed impaired personality profiles in internalized and externalized domains. Individuals with or without PTSD showed significant differences p < 0.05 concerning: internalized, externalized and avoidance. ANOVA and post-hoc analysis according to Scheffé showed that the prolonged torture group > early childhood trauma exposure > nontraumatized group.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Prolonged torture experiences or early trauma exposure may impair personality formation by enhancing the effects of cognitive, affective and behavioural vulnerabilities.
authors.affiliation: Department of Women and Child Health, Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Unit, Astrid Lindgren's Children's Hospital, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden. Atia.Daud@ki.se
authors.forename: Atia
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Daud
authors.forename: Britt
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: af Klinteberg
authors.forename: Per-Anders
authors.initials: PA
authors.lastname: Rydelius
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D018912:Arabs; D006801:Humans; D007493:Iraq / Q000208:ethnology; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D010554:Personality Disorders / Q000145:classification / Q000209:etiology / Q000503:physiopathology; D010555:Personality Inventory; D013313:Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic / Q000523:psychology*; D013548:Sweden / Q000208:ethnology; D014947:Wounds and Injuries / Q000523:psychology*