title: The lateral intercostal artery perforators: anatomical study and clinical application in breast surgery.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The lateral intercostal artery perforator flaps are based on intercostal perforators that arise from the costal groove. Cadaver dissections have been performed to improve the understanding of lateral intercostal perforator anatomy. The clinical applications of this study are demonstrated.
  
  
  METHODS
  The intercostal perforators were dissected in 24 fresh cadavers and evaluated in a field that extended between the third and the eighth intercostal spaces and between the latissimus dorsi and pectoralis major muscles. Their relationship with the anterior border of the latissimus dorsi muscle and the serratus anterior vessels was investigated.
  
  
  RESULTS
  A mean value of 3.91 perforators per side was found. The majority of the intercostal perforators were found between the fifth and the eighth intercostal space level (88.4 percent). Mean distances of intercostal perforators to the anterior border of the latissimus dorsi muscle varied between 2.67 and 3.49 cm. The largest or "dominant" perforator was most frequently found in the sixth intercostal space (38.6 percent of cases) at an average of 2.5 to 3.5 cm from the anterior border of the latissimus dorsi muscle. In 10 of 47 sides (21 percent), vascular connections were found between the serratus anterior branch and the intercostal perforators. The connection was observed more frequently in the seventh and the sixth intercostal spaces, in 38 percent and 30 percent of cases, respectively. This vascular connection enables harvest of a serratus anterior artery perforator flap.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Lateral intercostal artery perforator flaps can be used to address challenging defects over the breast without sacrificing the pedicle of the latissimus dorsi muscle.
authors.affiliation: Gent, Belgium From the Plastic and Reconstructive Department, Gent University Hospital, and the Department of Anatomy, Embryology, Histology, and Medical Physics, Gent University.
authors.forename: Moustapha
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Hamdi
authors.forename: Andrea
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Spano
authors.forename: Koenraad Van
authors.initials: KV
authors.lastname: Landuyt
authors.forename: Katharina
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: D'Herde
authors.forename: Phillip
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Blondeel
authors.forename: Stan
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Monstrey
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D001943:Breast Neoplasms / Q000601:surgery*; D002102:Cadaver; D005260:Female; D005500:Follow-Up Studies; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D016462:Mammaplasty / Q000379:methods*; D008323:Mammary Arteries / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D015412:Mastectomy, Segmental / Q000379:methods; D008875:Middle Aged; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000098:blood supply / Q000637:transplantation*; D013524:Surgical Flaps / Q000098:blood supply*; D035441:Thoracic Wall / Q000098:blood supply*