title: Determinants of self-medication with antibiotics in Europe: the impact of beliefs, country wealth and the healthcare system.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Self-medication with antibiotics occurs among the population in Europe, particularly in southern and eastern countries. We studied the impact of predisposing factors (e.g. attitudes and knowledge concerning antibiotic use and self-medication) and enabling factors (country wealth and healthcare system factors) on self-medication with antibiotics in Europe.
  
  
  METHODS
  In this follow-up of a previous European survey, we interviewed a subsample of 1101 respondents. A multilevel analysis with two levels (respondent and country) was performed. Variables that were statistically significantly different between users and non-users of self-medication were considered for inclusion into the multilevel regression analyses.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Predisposing factors included individual-level characteristics. High perceived appropriateness of self-medication with antibiotics for bronchitis and an attitude favouring antibiotic use for minor ailments were related to a higher likelihood of self-medication. Enabling factors included individual and country data. At the individual level, perceived availability of antibiotics without a prescription was related to increased probability of self-medication. At the country level, higher gross domestic product (wealth) and exact dispensation of prescribed tablet quantities by pharmacies were independently associated with lower likelihood of self-medication.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Interventions aimed at preventing self-medication should include public education, enforcing regulations regarding the sale of antibiotics, and implementing laws for dispensing exact prescribed tablet quantities in pharmacies. With the included determinants, we explained almost all the variance at the country level, but not at the individual level. Future studies to increase our understanding of determinants of self-medication with antibiotics should focus on individual-level factors such as doctor-patient relationships and patient satisfaction.
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Pharmacology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands. l.grigoryan@umcutrecht.nl
authors.forename: Larissa
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Grigoryan
authors.forename: Johannes G M
authors.initials: JG
authors.lastname: Burgerhof
authors.forename: John E
authors.initials: JE
authors.lastname: Degener
authors.forename: Reginald
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Deschepper
authors.forename: Cecilia Stålsby
authors.initials: CS
authors.lastname: Lundborg
authors.forename: Dominique L
authors.initials: DL
authors.lastname: Monnet
authors.forename: Elizabeth A
authors.initials: EA
authors.lastname: Scicluna
authors.forename: Joan
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Birkin
authors.forename: Flora M
authors.initials: FM
authors.lastname: Haaijer-Ruskamp
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D003431:Cross-Cultural Comparison; D003695:Delivery of Health Care / Q000458:organization & administration*; D004467:Economics; D005060:Europe; D005260:Female; D019538:Health Care Surveys; D007722:Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D012651:Self Medication
chemical_list: D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents