Biodiversity and biogeography of phages in modern stromatolites and thrombolites.
Viruses, and more particularly phages (viruses that infect bacteria), represent one of the most abundant living entities in aquatic and terrestrial environments. The biogeography of phages has only recently been investigated and so far reveals a cosmopolitan distribution of phage genetic material (or genotypes). Here we address this cosmopolitan distribution through the analysis of phage communities in modern microbialites, the living representatives of one of the most ancient life forms on Earth. On the basis of a comparative metagenomic analysis of viral communities associated with marine (Highborne Cay, Bahamas) and freshwater (Pozas Azules II and Rio Mesquites, Mexico) microbialites, we show that some phage genotypes are geographically restricted. The high percentage of unknown sequences recovered from the three metagenomes (>97%), the low percentage similarities with sequences from other environmental viral (n = 42) and microbial (n = 36) metagenomes, and the absence of viral genotypes shared among microbialites indicate that viruses are genetically unique in these environments. Identifiable sequences in the Highborne Cay metagenome were dominated by single-stranded DNA microphages that were not detected in any other samples examined, including sea water, fresh water, sediment, terrestrial, extreme, metazoan-associated and marine microbial mats. Finally, a marine signature was present in the phage community of the Pozas Azules II microbialites, even though this environment has not been in contact with the ocean for tens of millions of years. Taken together, these results prove that viruses in modern microbialites display biogeographical variability and suggest that they may be derived from an ancient community.
Desnues
Christelle
C
Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, California 92182, USA. cdesnues@yahoo.fr
Rodriguez-Brito
Beltran
B
Rayhawk
Steve
S
Kelley
Scott
S
Tran
Tuong
T
Haynes
Matthew
M
Liu
Hong
H
Furlan
Mike
M
Wegley
Linda
L
Chau
Betty
B
Ruan
Yijun
Y
Hall
Dana
D
Angly
Florent E
FE
Edwards
Robert A
RA
Li
Linlin
L
Thurber
Rebecca Vega
RV
Reid
R Pamela
RP
Siefert
Janet
J
Souza
Valeria
V
Valentine
David L
DL
Swan
Brandon K
BK
Breitbart
Mya
M
Rohwer
Forest
F
D001435:Bacteriophages / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification* / Q000502:physiology*; D001444:Bahamas; D044822:Biodiversity; D002213:Capsid / Q000737:chemistry; D019295:Computational Biology; D004279:DNA, Viral / Q000032:analysis / Q000235:genetics; D017753:Ecosystem; D005618:Fresh Water / Q000382:microbiology / Q000821:virology; D016679:Genome, Viral / Q000235:genetics; D023281:Genomics; D005843:Geography; D019015:Geologic Sediments / Q000382:microbiology / Q000821:virology; D008800:Mexico; D008969:Molecular Sequence Data; D010802:Phylogeny; D020543:Proteome / Q000378:metabolism; D012623:Seawater / Q000382:microbiology / Q000821:virology; D014871:Water Microbiology
D004279:DNA, Viral; D020543:Proteome