title: Psychopharmacological interventions.
abstract: Currently stimulants and atomoxetine are the most established treatments for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD); more than 170 controlled studies with more than 9000 subjects have documented their efficacy in 50% to 70% of subjects. Although the stimulant medications tend to show a dose-related improvement in ADHD symptoms, atomoxetine is generally dosed based on weight. The literature clearly documents that stimulants improve not only abnormal behaviors of ADHD but also self-esteem, cognition, and social and family functioning. However, efficacy varies with age and psychiatric comorbidities. Although most of the existing studies are brief, an increasing number of long-term studies have documented persistent response up to 1 and 2 years. Recent studies are extending the knowledge of treatment to younger and older subjects, women, and ethnic minorities. Cognitive and cognitive/behaviorally based psychotherapies combined with medication may play a role in treating behavioral and organizational issues and comorbid psychopathology.
authors.affiliation: Pediatric Psychopharmacology Research Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, 32 Fruit Street, Yaw 6A, Boston, MA 02114, USA. biederman@helix.mgh.harvard.edu
authors.forename: Joseph
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Biederman
authors.forename: Thomas J
authors.initials: TJ
authors.lastname: Spencer
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D001289:Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000188:drug therapy*; D001521:Behavior Therapy; D000697:Central Nervous System Stimulants / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D002648:Child; D015928:Cognitive Behavioral Therapy; D003131:Combined Modality Therapy; D018849:Controlled Clinical Trials as Topic; D006801:Humans; D008134:Long-Term Care; D016896:Treatment Outcome
chemical_list: D000697:Central Nervous System Stimulants