title: Autonomic consequences of kainic acid-induced limbic cortical seizures in rats: peripheral autonomic nerve activity, acute cardiovascular changes, and death.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Autonomic consequences of seizures are common, but can be severe. We sought to define changes in autonomic activity from limbic cortical seizures and their impact on the heart.
  
  
  METHODS
  We studied kainic acid (KA)-induced seizures in urethane-anesthetized rats using peripheral nerve, blood pressure (BP), and ECG recordings and echocardiography.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Seizures were associated with massive increases in parasympathetic (vagus nerves) and sympathetic (cervical sympathetic ganglion >renal nerve >splanchnic nerve) activity. Seizure-associated activity increases were greater than activity changes induced by nitroprusside or phenylephrine (each producing BP changes of >50 mmHg). Increases in c-fos expression were found in both sympathetic and parasympathetic medullary regions (as well as hypothalamic areas). Baroreceptor reflex function (tested with nitroprusside and phenylephrine) was impaired during seizures. Finally, a significant fraction of the animals died and the mechanism of death was defined through ECG, BP, and echocardiographic measures to be profound cardiac dilatation and bradyarrhythmia leading to hypoperfusion of the brain and ultimately hypoperfusion of the heart. Cardiovascular changes occur within seconds (or less) of autonomic nerve activity changes and death by these mechanisms takes minutes.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We propose that the massive parasympathetic and sympathetic outflow that occurs during a seizure gets compounded by respiratory distress (driving both autonomic nervous system divisions in the same direction) causing mechanical dysfunction, slowing the heart, and hypoperfusing the brain.
authors.affiliation: Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York 11203, USA.
authors.forename: Kenichi
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Sakamoto
authors.forename: Takeshi
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Saito
authors.forename: Rena
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Orman
authors.forename: Kiyomi
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Koizumi
authors.forename: Jason
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Lazar
authors.forename: Louis
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Salciccioli
authors.forename: Mark
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Stewart
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001341:Autonomic Nervous System / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000473:pathology / Q000503:physiopathology; D017704:Baroreflex / Q000187:drug effects; D001794:Blood Pressure / Q000187:drug effects; D002545:Brain Ischemia / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000473:pathology / Q000503:physiopathology; D002303:Cardiac Output, Low / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000473:pathology / Q000503:physiopathology; D002540:Cerebral Cortex / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000473:pathology / Q000503:physiopathology; D004452:Echocardiography / Q000187:drug effects; D004562:Electrocardiography / Q000187:drug effects; D004569:Electroencephalography / Q000187:drug effects; D004827:Epilepsy / Q000139:chemically induced* / Q000473:pathology / Q000503:physiopathology; D018690:Excitatory Amino Acid Agonists / Q000633:toxicity*; D006321:Heart / Q000294:innervation*; D006339:Heart Rate / Q000187:drug effects; D007031:Hypothalamus / Q000187:drug effects / Q000473:pathology; D007608:Kainic Acid / Q000633:toxicity*; D008032:Limbic System / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000473:pathology / Q000503:physiopathology; D008297:Male; D008526:Medulla Oblongata / Q000187:drug effects / Q000473:pathology; D009599:Nitroprusside / Q000494:pharmacology; D010525:Peripheral Nerves / Q000187:drug effects / Q000503:physiopathology; D010656:Phenylephrine / Q000494:pharmacology; D016760:Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-fos / Q000032:analysis; D051381:Rats; D017207:Rats, Sprague-Dawley; D013564:Sympathetic Nervous System / Q000473:pathology / Q000503:physiopathology
chemical_list: D018690:Excitatory Amino Acid Agonists; D016760:Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-fos; D009599:Nitroprusside; D010656:Phenylephrine; D007608:Kainic Acid